The ending of unending conflicts: Separatist wars

Millenium

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 679-707

  Heraclides, Alexis ^a  

^a PANTEION UNIVERSITY   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0012621740     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298970260031301     Document Type: Article

References (241)

1. Hugh Miall, The Peacemakers: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes since 1945 (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 124; Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 14-15 and 22-23; and David Carment and Patrick James, Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997).
2. Hugh Miall, The Peacemakers: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes since 1945 (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 124; Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 14-15 and 22-23; and David Carment and Patrick James, Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997).
3. Hugh Miall, The Peacemakers: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes since 1945 (London: Macmillan, 1992), p. 124; Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 14-15 and 22-23; and David Carment and Patrick James, Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997).
4. Seamus Dunn and T.G. Fraser, 'Introduction', in Seamus Dunn and T.G. Fraser (eds.), Europe and Ethnicity: World War I and Contemporary Ethnic Conflict (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 1. See also Larry Diamond and Mark F. Plattner (eds.), Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
5. Seamus Dunn and T.G. Fraser, 'Introduction', in Seamus Dunn and T.G. Fraser (eds.), Europe and Ethnicity: World War I and Contemporary Ethnic Conflict (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 1. See also Larry Diamond and Mark F. Plattner (eds.), Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
6. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
7. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
8. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
9. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
10. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
11. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
12. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
13. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
14. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
15. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
16. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
17. On the causes, see classic volumes such as Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan (eds.) Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); Cynthia Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973); Crawford Young, The Politics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 460-504; Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 229-88; Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). On conflict regulation, see Hurst Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary (eds.), The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation (London: Routledge, 1993); John Coakley (ed.), The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1993); and Ruth Lapidoth, Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
18. For exceptions, see Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), and K.M. de Silva and S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe (eds.), Peace Accords and Ethnic Conflict (London: Pinter Publishers, 1993). On civil wars, see Roy Licklider (ed.). Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), and I. William Zartman (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
19. For exceptions, see Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), and K.M. de Silva and S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe (eds.), Peace Accords and Ethnic Conflict (London: Pinter Publishers, 1993). On civil wars, see Roy Licklider (ed.). Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), and I. William Zartman (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
20. For exceptions, see Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), and K.M. de Silva and S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe (eds.), Peace Accords and Ethnic Conflict (London: Pinter Publishers, 1993). On civil wars, see Roy Licklider (ed.). Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), and I. William Zartman (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
21. For exceptions, see Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), and K.M. de Silva and S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe (eds.), Peace Accords and Ethnic Conflict (London: Pinter Publishers, 1993). On civil wars, see Roy Licklider (ed.). Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), and I. William Zartman (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
22. Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991).
23. The main exception among large scale studies which deal with ethnic conflicts per se, is Ted Robert Gurr, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993). This authoritative and detailed volume deals with an infinite variety of ethnicrelated conflicts, but its section on separatist armed violence is somewhat flimsy. Only 30 cases are mentioned, several of which hardly fall under the category of separatism (e.g., the Palestinians in Lebanon). See also Morton H. Halperin and David J. Scheffer with Patricia L. Small, Self-Determination in the New World Order (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992).
24. The main exception among large scale studies which deal with ethnic conflicts per se, is Ted Robert Gurr, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993). This authoritative and detailed volume deals with an infinite variety of ethnicrelated conflicts, but its section on separatist armed violence is somewhat flimsy. Only 30 cases are mentioned, several of which hardly fall under the category of separatism (e.g., the Palestinians in Lebanon). See also Morton H. Halperin and David J. Scheffer with Patricia L. Small, Self-Determination in the New World Order (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992).
25. See, for example, Ken Booth, 'Security in Anarchy: Utopian Realism in Theory and Practice', International Affairs (Vol. 67, No. 3, 1991), p. 537, and Evan Luard, The Globalization of Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990).
26. See, for example, Ken Booth, 'Security in Anarchy: Utopian Realism in Theory and Practice', International Affairs (Vol. 67, No. 3, 1991), p. 537, and Evan Luard, The Globalization of Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990).
27. Other important facets of the question, such as the method or direction of peace talks and the normative-ethical dimension of endings, in particular the issue of a just or justified conclusion, are beyond our scope. For the question of a just outcome to separatist conflict, see, for example, Lee C. Buchheit, Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978); Allen Buchanan, Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Christian Tomuschat (ed.), Modern Law of Self-Determination (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993). For a more recent attempt, see also Alexis Heraclides, 'Ethnicity, Secessionist Conflict and the International Society: Towards Normative Paradigm Shift', Nations and Nationalism (Vol. 3, No. 4, 1997), pp. 493-520.
28. Other important facets of the question, such as the method or direction of peace talks and the normative-ethical dimension of endings, in particular the issue of a just or justified conclusion, are beyond our scope. For the question of a just outcome to separatist conflict, see, for example, Lee C. Buchheit, Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978); Allen Buchanan, Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Christian Tomuschat (ed.), Modern Law of Self-Determination (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993). For a more recent attempt, see also Alexis Heraclides, 'Ethnicity, Secessionist Conflict and the International Society: Towards Normative Paradigm Shift', Nations and Nationalism (Vol. 3, No. 4, 1997), pp. 493-520.
29. Other important facets of the question, such as the method or direction of peace talks and the normative-ethical dimension of endings, in particular the issue of a just or justified conclusion, are beyond our scope. For the question of a just outcome to separatist conflict, see, for example, Lee C. Buchheit, Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978); Allen Buchanan, Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Christian Tomuschat (ed.), Modern Law of Self-Determination (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993). For a more recent attempt, see also Alexis Heraclides, 'Ethnicity, Secessionist Conflict and the International Society: Towards Normative Paradigm Shift', Nations and Nationalism (Vol. 3, No. 4, 1997), pp. 493-520.
30. Other important facets of the question, such as the method or direction of peace talks and the normative-ethical dimension of endings, in particular the issue of a just or justified conclusion, are beyond our scope. For the question of a just outcome to separatist conflict, see, for example, Lee C. Buchheit, Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978); Allen Buchanan, Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); and Christian Tomuschat (ed.), Modern Law of Self-Determination (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993). For a more recent attempt, see also Alexis Heraclides, 'Ethnicity, Secessionist Conflict and the International Society: Towards Normative Paradigm Shift', Nations and Nationalism (Vol. 3, No. 4, 1997), pp. 493-520.
31. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
32. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
33. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
34. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
35. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
36. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
37. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
38. George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 122-53; Miall, op, cit., in note 1; Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), p. 681; Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 25; Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 9; I. William Zartman, 'Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts', in Zartman, op. cit., in note 4, p. 3; Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper, No. 308 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1997), p. 12; and Barbara F. Walter, 'The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement', International Organization (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1997), pp. 335-64.
39. Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 684-85.
40. Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, p. 681.
41. de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4.
42. Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 3.
43. See, for example, King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 13 and 25-7; Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, pp. 115-16; and Raimo Väyrynen, 'Towards a Theory of Ethnic Conflicts and their Resolution', Occasional Paper No. 6 of The Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame (1994), pp. 11-29.
44. See, for example, King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 13 and 25-7; Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, pp. 115-16; and Raimo Väyrynen, 'Towards a Theory of Ethnic Conflicts and their Resolution', Occasional Paper No. 6 of The Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame (1994), pp. 11-29.
45. See, for example, King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 13 and 25-7; Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, pp. 115-16; and Raimo Väyrynen, 'Towards a Theory of Ethnic Conflicts and their Resolution', Occasional Paper No. 6 of The Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame (1994), pp. 11-29.
46. As suggested, for example, by Miall, op. cit., in note 9, p. 185.
47. Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 296-97. However, upon closer scrutiny, the 14 instances of peaceful accommodation are far from convincing. At least two (Eritrea and Tigray, see also Table 1, Sections 2a and 2b) are, in fact, military victories by the insurgents and one (against the Baluchis, see also Table 1, Section 1a) constitutes a military victory by the state.
48. For definitions of secession see, for example, James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 61, and Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 1-2.
49. For definitions of secession see, for example, James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 61, and Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 1-2.
50. On the concept of irredentism, see Naomi Chazan (ed.), Irredentism and International Politics (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), pp. 2-3 and 24-25.
51. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 11-20.
52. Ivo D. Duchacek, Comparative Federalism: The Territorial Dimension of Politics (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp. 67-68, and Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 12-18.
53. Ivo D. Duchacek, Comparative Federalism: The Territorial Dimension of Politics (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp. 67-68, and Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 12-18.
54. This threshold regarding the extent of violence follows the lines of the Stockholm International Pease Research Institute (SIPRI) studies on armed violence. See Peter Wallensteen and Karin Axell, 'Armed Conflict at the End of the Cold War, 1989-92', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 30, No. 3, 1993), pp. 331-46; Peter Wallensteen and Margareta Sollenberg, 'Armed Conflicts, Conflict Termination and Peace Agreements, 1989-96', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 34, No. 3, 1997), pp. 339-58; and SIPRI Yearbook 1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 and onwards). Of course, in one's attempt to draw the line, some decisions have to be made which may seem fairly arbitrary. For example, on the one hand, we include the violence in Northern Ireland, the Basque Euzkkadi Ta Azkatasuna (ETA) [Basque Country and Freedom] in Spain, as well as the brief armed clash among Slovenes and Serbs in 1991, while, on the other hand, we exclude the Corsican Front de la Libération Nationale Corse or Syria's breakaway from the United Arab Republic that involved a skirmish of a few hours in Damascus in September 1961.
55. This threshold regarding the extent of violence follows the lines of the Stockholm International Pease Research Institute (SIPRI) studies on armed violence. See Peter Wallensteen and Karin Axell, 'Armed Conflict at the End of the Cold War, 1989-92', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 30, No. 3, 1993), pp. 331-46; Peter Wallensteen and Margareta Sollenberg, 'Armed Conflicts, Conflict Termination and Peace Agreements, 1989-96', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 34, No. 3, 1997), pp. 339-58; and SIPRI Yearbook 1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 and onwards). Of course, in one's attempt to draw the line, some decisions have to be made which may seem fairly arbitrary. For example, on the one hand, we include the violence in Northern Ireland, the Basque Euzkkadi Ta Azkatasuna (ETA) [Basque Country and Freedom] in Spain, as well as the brief armed clash among Slovenes and Serbs in 1991, while, on the other hand, we exclude the Corsican Front de la Libération Nationale Corse or Syria's breakaway from the United Arab Republic that involved a skirmish of a few hours in Damascus in September 1961.
56. This threshold regarding the extent of violence follows the lines of the Stockholm International Pease Research Institute (SIPRI) studies on armed violence. See Peter Wallensteen and Karin Axell, 'Armed Conflict at the End of the Cold War, 1989-92', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 30, No. 3, 1993), pp. 331-46; Peter Wallensteen and Margareta Sollenberg, 'Armed Conflicts, Conflict Termination and Peace Agreements, 1989-96', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 34, No. 3, 1997), pp. 339-58; and SIPRI Yearbook 1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 and onwards). Of course, in one's attempt to draw the line, some decisions have to be made which may seem fairly arbitrary. For example, on the one hand, we include the violence in Northern Ireland, the Basque Euzkkadi Ta Azkatasuna (ETA) [Basque Country and Freedom] in Spain, as well as the brief armed clash among Slovenes and Serbs in 1991, while, on the other hand, we exclude the Corsican Front de la Libération Nationale Corse or Syria's breakaway from the United Arab Republic that involved a skirmish of a few hours in Damascus in September 1961.
57. For other lengthy lists which include other types of wars as well, see, for example, Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 688-89; Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 210-24; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 85-87; and Wallensteen and Sollenberg, op. cit., in note 21, pp. 339-58.
58. For other lengthy lists which include other types of wars as well, see, for example, Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 688-89; Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 210-24; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 85-87; and Wallensteen and Sollenberg, op. cit., in note 21, pp. 339-58.
59. For other lengthy lists which include other types of wars as well, see, for example, Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 688-89; Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 210-24; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 85-87; and Wallensteen and Sollenberg, op. cit., in note 21, pp. 339-58.
60. For other lengthy lists which include other types of wars as well, see, for example, Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 688-89; Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 210-24; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 85-87; and Wallensteen and Sollenberg, op. cit., in note 21, pp. 339-58.
61. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
62. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
63. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
64. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
65. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
66. For the Yugoslavian war, see, for example, Christopher Bennett, Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse (London: Hurst and Company, 1995), pp. 112-72, and Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 114-98. Regarding Chechnya, one could claim that the Chechens won the war. See, for example, Alan Kasaev, 'Moscow's U-Turn', War Report, No. 47 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 19; Alaoudin Chilaev, 'Towards Independence', War Report, No. 48 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13; Robert Chencinev, 'Ichkeria Emerges', War Report, No. 52 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14; and Ilya Maksakov, One Year of Peace', War Report, No. 54 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 13. See also Table 1, Sections 4 and 3.
67. See Table 1, Sections 2b and 4.
68. Quoted in Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 9
69. Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, p. 196, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 18.
70. Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, p. 196, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 18.
71. King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 35.
72. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 116 and 123; George S. Harris, 'The Kurdish Conflict in Iraq', in Astri Suhrke and Lela Garner Noble (eds.), Ethnic Conflict and International Relations (New York, NY: Praeger, 1977), p. 84; and David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris, 1997), p. 326. See also Table 1, Sections 3e and 6.
73. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 116 and 123; George S. Harris, 'The Kurdish Conflict in Iraq', in Astri Suhrke and Lela Garner Noble (eds.), Ethnic Conflict and International Relations (New York, NY: Praeger, 1977), p. 84; and David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris, 1997), p. 326. See also Table 1, Sections 3e and 6.
74. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 116 and 123; George S. Harris, 'The Kurdish Conflict in Iraq', in Astri Suhrke and Lela Garner Noble (eds.), Ethnic Conflict and International Relations (New York, NY: Praeger, 1977), p. 84; and David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris, 1997), p. 326. See also Table 1, Sections 3e and 6.
75. Ted Robert Gurr, 'Transforming Ethno-Political Conflicts: Exit, Autonomy or Access', in Kumar Rupesinghe (ed.), Conflict Transformation (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1995), p. 6, and King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 35.
76. Ted Robert Gurr, 'Transforming Ethno-Political Conflicts: Exit, Autonomy or Access', in Kumar Rupesinghe (ed.), Conflict Transformation (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1995), p. 6, and King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 35.
77. Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 18, and Christopher R. Mitchell, 'Asymmetry and Strategies of Regional Conflict Resolution', in I. William Zartman and Victor A. Kremenyuk (eds.), Cooperative Security: Reducing Third World Wars (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995), p. 45.
78. Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 18, and Christopher R. Mitchell, 'Asymmetry and Strategies of Regional Conflict Resolution', in I. William Zartman and Victor A. Kremenyuk (eds.), Cooperative Security: Reducing Third World Wars (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995), p. 45.
79. Howard Wriggins, 'Sri Lanka: Negotiations in a Secessionist Conflict', in Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 9, pp. 49-51; Kasaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 19; and Chilaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 13.
80. Howard Wriggins, 'Sri Lanka: Negotiations in a Secessionist Conflict', in Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 9, pp. 49-51; Kasaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 19; and Chilaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 13.
81. Howard Wriggins, 'Sri Lanka: Negotiations in a Secessionist Conflict', in Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 9, pp. 49-51; Kasaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 19; and Chilaev, op. cit., in note 23, p. 13.
82. Richard N. Haass, Conflicts Unending: The United States and Regional Disputes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 27 and 138-39; Louis Kriesberg, 'Applications and Misapplications of Conflict Resolution Ideas to International Conflicts', in John A. Vasquez (ed.), Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Era (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 91-2; Francis A. Beer and Thomas F. Mayer, 'Why Wars End: Some Hypotheses', Review of International Studies (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1986), pp. 96-97 and 98-99; and Donald Wittman, 'How a War Ends: A Rational Model Approach', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 23, No. 4, 1979), pp. 744 and 759.
83. Richard N. Haass, Conflicts Unending: The United States and Regional Disputes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 27 and 138-39; Louis Kriesberg, 'Applications and Misapplications of Conflict Resolution Ideas to International Conflicts', in John A. Vasquez (ed.), Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Era (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 91-2; Francis A. Beer and Thomas F. Mayer, 'Why Wars End: Some Hypotheses', Review of International Studies (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1986), pp. 96-97 and 98-99; and Donald Wittman, 'How a War Ends: A Rational Model Approach', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 23, No. 4, 1979), pp. 744 and 759.
84. Richard N. Haass, Conflicts Unending: The United States and Regional Disputes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 27 and 138-39; Louis Kriesberg, 'Applications and Misapplications of Conflict Resolution Ideas to International Conflicts', in John A. Vasquez (ed.), Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Era (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 91-2; Francis A. Beer and Thomas F. Mayer, 'Why Wars End: Some Hypotheses', Review of International Studies (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1986), pp. 96-97 and 98-99; and Donald Wittman, 'How a War Ends: A Rational Model Approach', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 23, No. 4, 1979), pp. 744 and 759.
85. Richard N. Haass, Conflicts Unending: The United States and Regional Disputes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 27 and 138-39; Louis Kriesberg, 'Applications and Misapplications of Conflict Resolution Ideas to International Conflicts', in John A. Vasquez (ed.), Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Era (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 91-2; Francis A. Beer and Thomas F. Mayer, 'Why Wars End: Some Hypotheses', Review of International Studies (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1986), pp. 96-97 and 98-99; and Donald Wittman, 'How a War Ends: A Rational Model Approach', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 23, No. 4, 1979), pp. 744 and 759.
86. Henri Tajfel, 'The Social Psychology of Minorities', The Minority Rights Group, Report No. 38 (London: The Minorities Rights Group, 1978), p. 7.
87. Kriesberg, op. cit., in note 32, p. 93. On mutually acceptable outcomes through talks between the parties in conflict more generally, see John W. Burton, Conflict and Communication (London: Macmillan, 1969), and John W. Burton, Conflict: Resolution and Prevention (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990).
88. Kriesberg, op. cit., in note 32, p. 93. On mutually acceptable outcomes through talks between the parties in conflict more generally, see John W. Burton, Conflict and Communication (London: Macmillan, 1969), and John W. Burton, Conflict: Resolution and Prevention (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990).
89. Kriesberg, op. cit., in note 32, p. 93. On mutually acceptable outcomes through talks between the parties in conflict more generally, see John W. Burton, Conflict and Communication (London: Macmillan, 1969), and John W. Burton, Conflict: Resolution and Prevention (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990).
90. Christopher R. Mitchell, 'A Willingness to Talk', Working Paper No. 4 of the Center for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University (1990), p. 11; Joseph V. Montville, 'The Healing Function in Political Conflict Resolution', in Dennis J.D. Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe (eds.), Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 112-27; and Dean G. Pruitt, 'The Psychology of Social Conflict and its Relevance to International Conflict', in Vasquez (ed.), op. cit., in note 32, p. 109.
91. Christopher R. Mitchell, 'A Willingness to Talk', Working Paper No. 4 of the Center for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University (1990), p. 11; Joseph V. Montville, 'The Healing Function in Political Conflict Resolution', in Dennis J.D. Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe (eds.), Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 112-27; and Dean G. Pruitt, 'The Psychology of Social Conflict and its Relevance to International Conflict', in Vasquez (ed.), op. cit., in note 32, p. 109.
92. Christopher R. Mitchell, 'A Willingness to Talk', Working Paper No. 4 of the Center for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University (1990), p. 11; Joseph V. Montville, 'The Healing Function in Political Conflict Resolution', in Dennis J.D. Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe (eds.), Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 112-27; and Dean G. Pruitt, 'The Psychology of Social Conflict and its Relevance to International Conflict', in Vasquez (ed.), op. cit., in note 32, p. 109.
93. Beer and Mayer, op. cit., in note 32, pp. 96-97, and Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, p. 196.
94. Beer and Mayer, op. cit., in note 32, pp. 96-97, and Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, p. 196.
95. See Table 1, Section 3d.
96. Raymo Väyrynen, 'To Settle or to Transform: Perspectives on the Resolution of National and International Conflicts', in Raymo Väyrynen (ed.), New Directions in Conflict Theory: Conflict Resolution and Conflict Transformation (London: Sage, 1991), pp. 4-6.
97. Ivan Molloy, 'The Decline of the Moro National Liberation Front in the Southern Philippines', Journal of Contemporary Asia (Vol. 18, No. 1, 1988), p. 59, and B. Rodil, 'The Lumad and Moro of Mindanao', The Minority Rights Group Report (London: Minority Rights Group, 1993), p. 17. See also Table 1, Section 3d.
98. Ivan Molloy, 'The Decline of the Moro National Liberation Front in the Southern Philippines', Journal of Contemporary Asia (Vol. 18, No. 1, 1988), p. 59, and B. Rodil, 'The Lumad and Moro of Mindanao', The Minority Rights Group Report (London: Minority Rights Group, 1993), p. 17. See also Table 1, Section 3d.
99. Patrick Gilkes, 'The Effects of Secession on Somalia and Ethiopia', in Charles Gurdon (ed.), The Horn of Africa (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 1-8, and Alex De Waal, 'Rethinking Ethiopia', in ibid, pp. 25-46. See also Table 1, Sections 2a, 3a, and 3c.
100. Patrick Gilkes, 'The Effects of Secession on Somalia and Ethiopia', in Charles Gurdon (ed.), The Horn of Africa (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 1-8, and Alex De Waal, 'Rethinking Ethiopia', in ibid, pp. 25-46. See also Table 1, Sections 2a, 3a, and 3c.
101. I. William Zartman, 'Conclusions: The Last Mile', in Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 9, p. 334.
102. See, for example, Neville Maxwell, 'India, the Nagas and the North-East', Second Edition, The Minority Rights Group, Report No. 17 (London: The Minority Rights Group, 1980); Madan P. Bezbaruah, 'Cultural Sub-Nationalism in India's North-East: An Overview', in Subrata K. Mitra and R. Alison Lewis (eds.), Subnational Movements in South Asia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), pp. 171-90; and Raju Thomas, 'Managing Internal Security Problems', in Michael Krepon and Amit Sevak (eds.), Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building, and Reconciliation in South Asia (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 115 and 118-20. See also Table 1, Sections 3b, 3a, 3a, 3b, and 3b, respectively.
103. See, for example, Neville Maxwell, 'India, the Nagas and the North-East', Second Edition, The Minority Rights Group, Report No. 17 (London: The Minority Rights Group, 1980); Madan P. Bezbaruah, 'Cultural Sub-Nationalism in India's North-East: An Overview', in Subrata K. Mitra and R. Alison Lewis (eds.), Subnational Movements in South Asia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), pp. 171-90; and Raju Thomas, 'Managing Internal Security Problems', in Michael Krepon and Amit Sevak (eds.), Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building, and Reconciliation in South Asia (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 115 and 118-20. See also Table 1, Sections 3b, 3a, 3a, 3b, and 3b, respectively.
104. See, for example, Neville Maxwell, 'India, the Nagas and the North-East', Second Edition, The Minority Rights Group, Report No. 17 (London: The Minority Rights Group, 1980); Madan P. Bezbaruah, 'Cultural Sub-Nationalism in India's North-East: An Overview', in Subrata K. Mitra and R. Alison Lewis (eds.), Subnational Movements in South Asia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), pp. 171-90; and Raju Thomas, 'Managing Internal Security Problems', in Michael Krepon and Amit Sevak (eds.), Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building, and Reconciliation in South Asia (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 115 and 118-20. See also Table 1, Sections 3b, 3a, 3a, 3b, and 3b, respectively.
105. The Economist, 11 May 1996, pp. 16-17, The Economist, 20 July 1996, pp. 54-5. See also Table 1, Section 3d.
106. The Economist, 11 May 1996, pp. 16-17, The Economist, 20 July 1996, pp. 54-5. See also Table 1, Section 3d.
107. Alexis Heraclides, 'Janus or Sisyphus? The Southern Problem of the Sudan', The Journal of Modern African Studies (Vol. 25, No. 2, 1987), p. 221, and Astri Suhrke and Lela Garner Noble, 'Muslims in the Philippines and Thailand', in Suhrke and Noble (eds.), op. cit., in note 28, pp. 183-84. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 3e, and 3d.
108. Alexis Heraclides, 'Janus or Sisyphus? The Southern Problem of the Sudan', The Journal of Modern African Studies (Vol. 25, No. 2, 1987), p. 221, and Astri Suhrke and Lela Garner Noble, 'Muslims in the Philippines and Thailand', in Suhrke and Noble (eds.), op. cit., in note 28, pp. 183-84. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 3e, and 3d.
109. Chaim D. Kaufmann, 'Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars', International Security (Vol. 20, No. 4, 1996), p. 156, and Abysinghe M. Navaratna-Bandara, The Management of Ethnic Secessionist Conflict: The Big Neighbour Syndrome (Aldershot: Darthmouth, 1995).
110. Chaim D. Kaufmann, 'Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars', International Security (Vol. 20, No. 4, 1996), p. 156, and Abysinghe M. Navaratna-Bandara, The Management of Ethnic Secessionist Conflict: The Big Neighbour Syndrome (Aldershot: Darthmouth, 1995).
111. Jeff Chinn and Steven D. Ropper, 'Ethnic Mobilization and Reactive Nationalism: The Case of Moldova', Nationalities Papers (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995), pp. 291-325; Pal Kolsto and Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova, 'The Dniester Conflict: Between Irredentism and Separatism', Europa-Asia Studies (Vol. 45, No. 6, 1993), pp. 973-1000; Julian Birch, 'The Georgian/South Ossetian Territorial and Boundary Dispute', in John F.R. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield (eds.), Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 151-189; David Zurabishvili, 'Stalemate in Tskhinvali', War Report, No. 46 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 17; and David Zurubishvili, 'The Road to Nowhere', War Report, No. 50 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14. For both cases, see also Table 1, Section 4.
112. Jeff Chinn and Steven D. Ropper, 'Ethnic Mobilization and Reactive Nationalism: The Case of Moldova', Nationalities Papers (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995), pp. 291-325; Pal Kolsto and Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova, 'The Dniester Conflict: Between Irredentism and Separatism', Europa-Asia Studies (Vol. 45, No. 6, 1993), pp. 973-1000; Julian Birch, 'The Georgian/South Ossetian Territorial and Boundary Dispute', in John F.R. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield (eds.), Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 151-189; David Zurabishvili, 'Stalemate in Tskhinvali', War Report, No. 46 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 17; and David Zurubishvili, 'The Road to Nowhere', War Report, No. 50 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14. For both cases, see also Table 1, Section 4.
113. Jeff Chinn and Steven D. Ropper, 'Ethnic Mobilization and Reactive Nationalism: The Case of Moldova', Nationalities Papers (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995), pp. 291-325; Pal Kolsto and Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova, 'The Dniester Conflict: Between Irredentism and Separatism', Europa-Asia Studies (Vol. 45, No. 6, 1993), pp. 973-1000; Julian Birch, 'The Georgian/South Ossetian Territorial and Boundary Dispute', in John F.R. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield (eds.), Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 151-189; David Zurabishvili, 'Stalemate in Tskhinvali', War Report, No. 46 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 17; and David Zurubishvili, 'The Road to Nowhere', War Report, No. 50 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14. For both cases, see also Table 1, Section 4.
114. Jeff Chinn and Steven D. Ropper, 'Ethnic Mobilization and Reactive Nationalism: The Case of Moldova', Nationalities Papers (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995), pp. 291-325; Pal Kolsto and Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova, 'The Dniester Conflict: Between Irredentism and Separatism', Europa-Asia Studies (Vol. 45, No. 6, 1993), pp. 973-1000; Julian Birch, 'The Georgian/South Ossetian Territorial and Boundary Dispute', in John F.R. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield (eds.), Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 151-189; David Zurabishvili, 'Stalemate in Tskhinvali', War Report, No. 46 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 17; and David Zurubishvili, 'The Road to Nowhere', War Report, No. 50 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14. For both cases, see also Table 1, Section 4.
115. Jeff Chinn and Steven D. Ropper, 'Ethnic Mobilization and Reactive Nationalism: The Case of Moldova', Nationalities Papers (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995), pp. 291-325; Pal Kolsto and Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova, 'The Dniester Conflict: Between Irredentism and Separatism', Europa-Asia Studies (Vol. 45, No. 6, 1993), pp. 973-1000; Julian Birch, 'The Georgian/South Ossetian Territorial and Boundary Dispute', in John F.R. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg, and Richard Schofield (eds.), Transcaucasian Boundaries (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 151-189; David Zurabishvili, 'Stalemate in Tskhinvali', War Report, No. 46 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1996), p. 17; and David Zurubishvili, 'The Road to Nowhere', War Report, No. 50 (London: The Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 1997), p. 14. For both cases, see also Table 1, Section 4.
116. Wriggins, op. cit., in note 31, pp. 63-53, and Navaratna-Bandara, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 63-73, 83, 100, 102-103, and 106-108. See also Table 1, Section 6.
117. Wriggins, op. cit., in note 31, pp. 63-53, and Navaratna-Bandara, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 63-73, 83, 100, 102-103, and 106-108. See also Table 1, Section 6.
118. Walter, op. cit, in note 9, pp. 335 and 340, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 341. See also de Silva and Samárasinghe, op. cit., in note 4, p. 188.
119. Walter, op. cit, in note 9, pp. 335 and 340, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 341. See also de Silva and Samárasinghe, op. cit., in note 4, p. 188.
120. Walter, op. cit, in note 9, pp. 335 and 340, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 341. See also de Silva and Samárasinghe, op. cit., in note 4, p. 188.
121. Ronald Fisher, 'The Potential for Peacebuilding', Peace and Change (Vol. 18, No. 3, 1993), pp. 256-57. See also Table 1, Section 3d.
122. Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 139 and 159-61; David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, 'Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 2, 1996), p. 56; Dieter Senghaas, 'Provocative Mediation: A Suggestion', Peace and the Sciences (Vol. 28, March 1996), p. 1; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 50-52; and Peter Wallensteen, 'Incompatibility, Militarization and Conflict Resolution', in Chadwig F. Alger and J. Balacz (eds.), Conflict and Crisis of International Order (Budapest: Centre for Peace Coordination of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1985), p. 241.
123. Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 139 and 159-61; David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, 'Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 2, 1996), p. 56; Dieter Senghaas, 'Provocative Mediation: A Suggestion', Peace and the Sciences (Vol. 28, March 1996), p. 1; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 50-52; and Peter Wallensteen, 'Incompatibility, Militarization and Conflict Resolution', in Chadwig F. Alger and J. Balacz (eds.), Conflict and Crisis of International Order (Budapest: Centre for Peace Coordination of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1985), p. 241.
124. Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 139 and 159-61; David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, 'Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 2, 1996), p. 56; Dieter Senghaas, 'Provocative Mediation: A Suggestion', Peace and the Sciences (Vol. 28, March 1996), p. 1; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 50-52; and Peter Wallensteen, 'Incompatibility, Militarization and Conflict Resolution', in Chadwig F. Alger and J. Balacz (eds.), Conflict and Crisis of International Order (Budapest: Centre for Peace Coordination of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1985), p. 241.
125. Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 139 and 159-61; David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, 'Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 2, 1996), p. 56; Dieter Senghaas, 'Provocative Mediation: A Suggestion', Peace and the Sciences (Vol. 28, March 1996), p. 1; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 50-52; and Peter Wallensteen, 'Incompatibility, Militarization and Conflict Resolution', in Chadwig F. Alger and J. Balacz (eds.), Conflict and Crisis of International Order (Budapest: Centre for Peace Coordination of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1985), p. 241.
126. Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, pp. 139 and 159-61; David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, 'Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 2, 1996), p. 56; Dieter Senghaas, 'Provocative Mediation: A Suggestion', Peace and the Sciences (Vol. 28, March 1996), p. 1; King, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 50-52; and Peter Wallensteen, 'Incompatibility, Militarization and Conflict Resolution', in Chadwig F. Alger and J. Balacz (eds.), Conflict and Crisis of International Order (Budapest: Centre for Peace Coordination of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1985), p. 241.
127. On the issue of 'role defence', see John W. Burton, Deviance, Terrorism and War (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1979), pp. 140-58. For its salience in secessionist conflicts, see Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, p. 36. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 3e, and 3d.
128. On the issue of 'role defence', see John W. Burton, Deviance, Terrorism and War (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1979), pp. 140-58. For its salience in secessionist conflicts, see Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, p. 36. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 3e, and 3d.
129. Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 8.
130. McDowall, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 323-37; Richard Sherman, Eritrea: The Unfinished Revolution (New York, NY: Praeger, 1980), pp. 42 and 46-54; Ann Mosely Lesch, 'Negotiations in Sudan', in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace: Foreign Intervention in Africa (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993), pp. 107-38; and Ronald D. Renard, 'The Karen Rebellion in Burma', in Ralph R. Premdas, S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe, and Alan B. Anderson (eds.), Secessionist Movements in Comparative Perspective (London: Pinter Publishers, 1990), pp. 100-109. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 2b, and 6 and 3e, respectively.
131. McDowall, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 323-37; Richard Sherman, Eritrea: The Unfinished Revolution (New York, NY: Praeger, 1980), pp. 42 and 46-54; Ann Mosely Lesch, 'Negotiations in Sudan', in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace: Foreign Intervention in Africa (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993), pp. 107-38; and Ronald D. Renard, 'The Karen Rebellion in Burma', in Ralph R. Premdas, S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe, and Alan B. Anderson (eds.), Secessionist Movements in Comparative Perspective (London: Pinter Publishers, 1990), pp. 100-109. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 2b, and 6 and 3e, respectively.
132. McDowall, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 323-37; Richard Sherman, Eritrea: The Unfinished Revolution (New York, NY: Praeger, 1980), pp. 42 and 46-54; Ann Mosely Lesch, 'Negotiations in Sudan', in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace: Foreign Intervention in Africa (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993), pp. 107-38; and Ronald D. Renard, 'The Karen Rebellion in Burma', in Ralph R. Premdas, S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe, and Alan B. Anderson (eds.), Secessionist Movements in Comparative Perspective (London: Pinter Publishers, 1990), pp. 100-109. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 2b, and 6 and 3e, respectively.
133. McDowall, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 323-37; Richard Sherman, Eritrea: The Unfinished Revolution (New York, NY: Praeger, 1980), pp. 42 and 46-54; Ann Mosely Lesch, 'Negotiations in Sudan', in David R. Smock (ed.), Making War and Waging Peace: Foreign Intervention in Africa (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993), pp. 107-38; and Ronald D. Renard, 'The Karen Rebellion in Burma', in Ralph R. Premdas, S.W.R. de A. Samarasinghe, and Alan B. Anderson (eds.), Secessionist Movements in Comparative Perspective (London: Pinter Publishers, 1990), pp. 100-109. See also Table 1, Sections 6, 2b, and 6 and 3e, respectively.
134. See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 472; Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 599 and 601-28; Young, op. cit., in note 3; John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary, 'Introduction: The Macro-Political Regulation of Ethnic Conflict', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 30-37; and I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', in Montville (ed.), op.cit, in note 4, p. 527.
135. See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 472; Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 599 and 601-28; Young, op. cit., in note 3; John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary, 'Introduction: The Macro-Political Regulation of Ethnic Conflict', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 30-37; and I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', in Montville (ed.), op.cit, in note 4, p. 527.
136. See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 472; Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 599 and 601-28; Young, op. cit., in note 3; John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary, 'Introduction: The Macro-Political Regulation of Ethnic Conflict', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 30-37; and I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', in Montville (ed.), op.cit, in note 4, p. 527.
137. See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 472; Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 599 and 601-28; Young, op. cit., in note 3; John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary, 'Introduction: The Macro-Political Regulation of Ethnic Conflict', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 30-37; and I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', in Montville (ed.), op.cit, in note 4, p. 527.
138. See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, 'Making Moderation Pay: The Comparative Politics of Ethnic Conflict Management', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 472; Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 599 and 601-28; Young, op. cit., in note 3; John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary, 'Introduction: The Macro-Political Regulation of Ethnic Conflict', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 30-37; and I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', in Montville (ed.), op.cit, in note 4, p. 527.
139. Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, p. 301. See also Table 1, Section 6.
140. See Table 1, Sections 6 and 3e (Southern Sudan), 4 (Cyprus), 1a (Baluchistan), and 4 and 3e (Kosovo).
141. For all three cases, see Table 1, Section 4.
142. Sucha Singh Gill, 'The Punjab Accord of 1985 and its Failure', in de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 109; Gurharpal Singh, 'The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, p. 111; and Gurharpal Singh, 'Ethnic Conflict in India: a Case Study of Punjab', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 92-101. See also Table 1, Section 6.
143. Sucha Singh Gill, 'The Punjab Accord of 1985 and its Failure', in de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 109; Gurharpal Singh, 'The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, p. 111; and Gurharpal Singh, 'Ethnic Conflict in India: a Case Study of Punjab', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 92-101. See also Table 1, Section 6.
144. Sucha Singh Gill, 'The Punjab Accord of 1985 and its Failure', in de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 109; Gurharpal Singh, 'The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, p. 111; and Gurharpal Singh, 'Ethnic Conflict in India: a Case Study of Punjab', in McGarry and O'Leary (eds.), op. cit., in note 3, pp. 92-101. See also Table 1, Section 6.
145. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 127-28, 134-35, and 172-73. See also Table 1, Sections la, 3d, and 6, respectively.
146. Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, p. 302, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 341. See also Table 1, Section 6.
147. Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, p. 302, and Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, p. 341. See also Table 1, Section 6.
148. K.M. de Silva, 'The Making of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: The Final Phase, June-July 1987', in de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4, pp. 113-55, and Dennis Austin, Democracy and Violence in India and Sri Lanka (London: Pinter Publishers, 1994), pp. 70-75.
149. K.M. de Silva, 'The Making of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: The Final Phase, June-July 1987', in de Silva and Samarasinghe (eds.), op. cit., in note 4, pp. 113-55, and Dennis Austin, Democracy and Violence in India and Sri Lanka (London: Pinter Publishers, 1994), pp. 70-75.
150. Polyvios G. Polyviou, Cyprus: Conflict and Negotiations, 1960-1980 (New York, NY: Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1980), pp. 13-15. See also Table 1, Section 4.
151. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 85 and 181-82; Vernon Hewitt, 'Ethnic Construction, Provincial Identity and Nationalism in Pakistan: The Case of Baluchistan', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, pp. 59-60; and Sabrina Petra Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962-1992, Second Edition (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 225-38. See also Table 1, Sections 1a, 2b, 1a, and 2a, respectively.
152. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 85 and 181-82; Vernon Hewitt, 'Ethnic Construction, Provincial Identity and Nationalism in Pakistan: The Case of Baluchistan', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, pp. 59-60; and Sabrina Petra Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962-1992, Second Edition (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 225-38. See also Table 1, Sections 1a, 2b, 1a, and 2a, respectively.
153. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 85 and 181-82; Vernon Hewitt, 'Ethnic Construction, Provincial Identity and Nationalism in Pakistan: The Case of Baluchistan', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, pp. 59-60; and Sabrina Petra Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962-1992, Second Edition (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 225-38. See also Table 1, Sections 1a, 2b, 1a, and 2a, respectively.
154. Robert G. Wirsing, India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 111-86, and Sumit Ganguli and Kanti Bajpai, 'Kashmir: A Strategic Crisis or Ethnic Nationalism?', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, pp. 126-37. See also Table 1, Section 6.
155. Robert G. Wirsing, India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 111-86, and Sumit Ganguli and Kanti Bajpai, 'Kashmir: A Strategic Crisis or Ethnic Nationalism?', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, pp. 126-37. See also Table 1, Section 6.
156. Astri Suhrke, 'Irredentism Contained: The Thai-Muslim Case', Comparative Politics (Vol. 7, No. 2, 1975), pp. 187-192, and R.J. May, 'The Religious Factor in Three Minority Movements: The Moros of the Philippines, the Malays of Thailand and Indonesia's West Papuans', Journal/Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1991), pp. 312-14. See also Table 1, Sections 3e (the Ogaden Somalis), 4 (the Turkish Cypriots), 4 (the South Ossetians), 4 (the Transdniestrians), and 1a (the Pattanis).
157. Astri Suhrke, 'Irredentism Contained: The Thai-Muslim Case', Comparative Politics (Vol. 7, No. 2, 1975), pp. 187-192, and R.J. May, 'The Religious Factor in Three Minority Movements: The Moros of the Philippines, the Malays of Thailand and Indonesia's West Papuans', Journal/Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs (Vol. 12, No. 2, 1991), pp. 312-14. See also Table 1, Sections 3e (the Ogaden Somalis), 4 (the Turkish Cypriots), 4 (the South Ossetians), 4 (the Transdniestrians), and 1a (the Pattanis).
158. Khachig Tololyan, 'National Self-Determination and the Limits of Sovereignty: Armenia, Azerbaijan and the Secession of Nagorno-Karabakh', Nationalism and Ethnic Politics (Vol. 1, No. 1, 1995), pp. 98-108. For both IRA and the Armenians, see also Table 1, Section 4.
159. Ramet, op. cit., in note 63, pp. 189-92, 194, and 198, and Alexis Heraclides, 'The Kosovo Conflict and its Resolution: In Pursuit of Ariadne's Thread', Security Dialogue (Vol. 28, No. 3, 1997), pp. 320 and 324. See also Table 1, Sections 1b, 3e, and 4.
160. Ramet, op. cit., in note 63, pp. 189-92, 194, and 198, and Alexis Heraclides, 'The Kosovo Conflict and its Resolution: In Pursuit of Ariadne's Thread', Security Dialogue (Vol. 28, No. 3, 1997), pp. 320 and 324. See also Table 1, Sections 1b, 3e, and 4.
161. Zurubishvili, op. cit., in note 46, p. 15. Note, however, that the situation on the battleground is not accepted internationally. On this, see Chencinev, op. cit., in note 23, pp. 42-43.
162. Zurubishvili, op. cit., in note 46, p. 15. Note, however, that the situation on the battleground is not accepted internationally. On this, see Chencinev, op. cit., in note 23, pp. 42-43.
163. Arend Lijphart, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), and Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 139-72. See also Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5.
164. Arend Lijphart, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), and Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 139-72. See also Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5.
165. Arend Lijphart, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), and Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 139-72. See also Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5.
166. See, on this point, Barbara Harff, 'Recognizing Genocides and Politicides', in Helen Fein (ed.), Genocide Watch (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), and Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 686-87.
167. See, on this point, Barbara Harff, 'Recognizing Genocides and Politicides', in Helen Fein (ed.), Genocide Watch (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), and Licklider, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 686-87.
168. Halperin et at., op. cit., in note 6, pp. 60-65. See, more generally, Thomas M. Franck, The Power of Legitimacy among Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).
169. Halperin et at., op. cit., in note 6, pp. 60-65. See, more generally, Thomas M. Franck, The Power of Legitimacy among Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).
170. See Table 1, Sections 3b (the Basques), 3d (the Gagauzians), and 4 (the Transdniestrians).
171. Morton Deutsch, 'Subjective Features of Conflict Resolution', in Väyrynen (ed.), op. cit., in note 38, p. 30. This is also one of the basic reasons for aggressive behaviour. See, for example, J.P. Scott, 'The Old-Time Aggression', in Ashley Montagu (ed.), Man and Aggression (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 139.
172. Morton Deutsch, 'Subjective Features of Conflict Resolution', in Väyrynen (ed.), op. cit., in note 38, p. 30. This is also one of the basic reasons for aggressive behaviour. See, for example, J.P. Scott, 'The Old-Time Aggression', in Ashley Montagu (ed.), Man and Aggression (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 139.
173. Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 115, and Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, pp. 30 and 38-39.
174. Donald L. Horowitz, 'Ethnic Conflict Management for Policymakers', in Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4, p. 115, and Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, pp. 30 and 38-39.
175. Note that disputes over territory are the most common reason for international wars. See John A. Vasquez, The War Puzzle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 123-52, and Wallensteen, op. cit., in note 50, p. 232.
176. Note that disputes over territory are the most common reason for international wars. See John A. Vasquez, The War Puzzle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 123-52, and Wallensteen, op. cit., in note 50, p. 232.
177. Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 41-60. The fallacy of the indivisibility approach is even more striking in view of the gradual erosion of sovereignty in the last three decades of the twentieth century. This calls for a more attenuated concept of sovereignty. For moving beyond the territoriality and indivisibility of sovereignty, see, for example, Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State (New York, NY: Council for Foreign Relations Press, 1993), pp. 14-47, and Väyrynen, op. cit., in note 14, pp. 26-28.
178. Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 41-60. The fallacy of the indivisibility approach is even more striking in view of the gradual erosion of sovereignty in the last three decades of the twentieth century. This calls for a more attenuated concept of sovereignty. For moving beyond the territoriality and indivisibility of sovereignty, see, for example, Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State (New York, NY: Council for Foreign Relations Press, 1993), pp. 14-47, and Väyrynen, op. cit., in note 14, pp. 26-28.
179. Holsti, op. cit., in note 1, pp. 41-60. The fallacy of the indivisibility approach is even more striking in view of the gradual erosion of sovereignty in the last three decades of the twentieth century. This calls for a more attenuated concept of sovereignty. For moving beyond the territoriality and indivisibility of sovereignty, see, for example, Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State (New York, NY: Council for Foreign Relations Press, 1993), pp. 14-47, and Väyrynen, op. cit., in note 14, pp. 26-28.
180. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976); Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, pp. 26-33; and Pruitt, op. cit., in note 35, pp. 106-108.
181. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976); Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, pp. 26-33; and Pruitt, op. cit., in note 35, pp. 106-108.
182. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976); Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, pp. 26-33; and Pruitt, op. cit., in note 35, pp. 106-108.
183. Bryant Wedge, 'Psychology of the Self in Social Conflict', in Edward A. Azar and John W. Burton (eds.), International Conflict Resolution (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1986), pp. 56-57.
184. Leon Festinger in Morton Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 357; Beer and Mayer, op. cit., in note 32, pp. 97-98; and Jeffrey Z. Rubin, Dean G. Pruitt, and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict, Second Edition (New York, NY: McGrow-Hill), pp. 111-16.
185. Leon Festinger in Morton Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 357; Beer and Mayer, op. cit., in note 32, pp. 97-98; and Jeffrey Z. Rubin, Dean G. Pruitt, and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict, Second Edition (New York, NY: McGrow-Hill), pp. 111-16.
186. Leon Festinger in Morton Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 357; Beer and Mayer, op. cit., in note 32, pp. 97-98; and Jeffrey Z. Rubin, Dean G. Pruitt, and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict, Second Edition (New York, NY: McGrow-Hill), pp. 111-16.
187. 'Conflict with cut-groups increases internal cohesion', by leading to the mobilisation of the energies of group members. Lewis Coser, The Functions of Social Conflict (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), p. 87.
188. Wedge, op. cit., in note 78, pp. 56-62; Vamik D. Volkan, The Need to Have Enemies and Allies (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1988); and Fisher, op. cit., in note 49, p. 248.
189. Wedge, op. cit., in note 78, pp. 56-62; Vamik D. Volkan, The Need to Have Enemies and Allies (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1988); and Fisher, op. cit., in note 49, p. 248.
190. Wedge, op. cit., in note 78, pp. 56-62; Vamik D. Volkan, The Need to Have Enemies and Allies (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1988); and Fisher, op. cit., in note 49, p. 248.
191. Mitchell, op. cit., in note 30, p. 27.
192. Deutsch, op. cit., in note 73, p. 31.
193. Robert K. Merton, 'The Self-Fulfilling Prophesy', in Edwin P. Hollander and Raymond G. Hunt (eds.), Classic Contributions to Social Psychology (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 260-66.
194. Vernon Hewitt, 'Ethnic Construction, Provincial Identity and Nationalism in Pakistan: The Case of Baluchistan', in Mitra and Lewis (eds.), op. cit., in note 42, p. 59.
195. Dunstan M. Wai, The Afro-Arab Conflict in the Sudan (New York, NY: Africana Publishing Company, 1981), p. 139.
196. Christopher R. Mitchell, 'Evaluating Conflict', Journal of Peace Research (Vol. 17, No. 1, 1981), pp. 61-75.
197. Johan Galtung, Peace Research, Education, Action. Essays in Peace Research, Volume 1 (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1975), pp. 79-80, and Mitchell, op. cit., in note 30, pp. 25-57.
198. Johan Galtung, Peace Research, Education, Action. Essays in Peace Research, Volume 1 (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1975), pp. 79-80, and Mitchell, op. cit., in note 30, pp. 25-57.
199. Kalevi J. Holsti, 'Paths to Peace? Theories of Conflict Resolution and Realities of International Polities', in Ramesh Thakur (ed.), International Conflict Resolution (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), p. 114.
200. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
201. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
202. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
203. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
204. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
205. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
206. On such values and needs, see Burton, op. cit., in note 51, pp. 55-84; John W. Burton (ed.), Conflict: Human Needs Theory (Houndsmills: Macmillan, 1990); John W. Burton, 'Dynamics of Change in World Society', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 5, No. 1, 1976), pp. 66-77; and Paul Sites, Control: The Basis of Social Order (New York, NY: Dunellen, 1973). For the psychology literature on this, see, for example, Abraham H. Maslow, Towards a Psychology of Being (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962); Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955); and Hadley Cantril, 'The Human Design', in Hollander and Hunt (eds.), op. cit., in note 84, pp. 52-58.
207. Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 545-46, and Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 299-300.
208. Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 545-46, and Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, pp. 299-300.
209. Wedge, op. cit., in note 78, pp. 57-60.
210. Milton J. Esman, 'Perspective on Ethnic Conflict in Industrialized Societies', in Esman (ed.), op. cit., in note 3, p. 382.
211. For Myanmar, see Table 1, Sections 1c and S.
212. Mayall, op. cit., in note 17, p. 68, and Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 564-65.
213. Mayall, op. cit., in note 17, p. 68, and Horowitz, op. cit., in note 3, pp. 564-65.
214. For Papua New Guinea, see Table 1, Section 6.
215. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century, 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 280-85, and Väyrynen, op. cit., in note 38, p. 3.
216. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century, 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 280-85, and Väyrynen, op. cit., in note 38, p. 3.
217. R.J. Vincent, Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 236; Rosalyn Higgins, 'Internal Law and International Law', in C.E. Black and Richard A. Falk (eds.), The Future of the International Legal Order, Volume 3 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 92-97; and Anthony Clark Arend and Robert J. Beck, International Law and the Use of Force (London: Routledge, 1993).
218. R.J. Vincent, Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 236; Rosalyn Higgins, 'Internal Law and International Law', in C.E. Black and Richard A. Falk (eds.), The Future of the International Legal Order, Volume 3 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 92-97; and Anthony Clark Arend and Robert J. Beck, International Law and the Use of Force (London: Routledge, 1993).
219. R.J. Vincent, Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 236; Rosalyn Higgins, 'Internal Law and International Law', in C.E. Black and Richard A. Falk (eds.), The Future of the International Legal Order, Volume 3 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 92-97; and Anthony Clark Arend and Robert J. Beck, International Law and the Use of Force (London: Routledge, 1993).
220. See Galtung, op. cit., in note 88; Mitchell, op. cit., in note 88; and Hedley Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
221. See Galtung, op. cit., in note 88; Mitchell, op. cit., in note 88; and Hedley Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
222. See Galtung, op. cit., in note 88; Mitchell, op. cit., in note 88; and Hedley Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
223. For Angola, see Table 1, Section 6.
224. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 20 and 198-99.
225. Zartman, op. cit., in note 9, pp. 3-4 and 9.
226. Mitchell, op. cit., in note 30, p. 37; A.J.R. Groom, 'Peacemaking', Research Monograph No. 4 of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA (1973), p. 9.
227. Mitchell, op. cit., in note 30, p. 37; A.J.R. Groom, 'Peacemaking', Research Monograph No. 4 of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA (1973), p. 9.
228. For such costs, see Alexis Heraclides, 'The International Dimension of Minority Separatism: An Attempt at Unravelling a Pandora's Box', Paradigms (Vol. 6, No. 1, 1992), pp. 38-40. See also Table 1, Sections 6 (Kurds and Tamils), 2b, 3c, and 2a (Eritreans, Oromos, and Tigrays, respectively).
229. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 20 and 198-99; Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, p. 137; and King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 37.
230. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 20 and 198-99; Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, p. 137; and King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 37.
231. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 20 and 198-99; Kaufmann, op. cit., in note 45, p. 137; and King, op. cit., in note 9, p. 37.
232. See Table 1, Section 1 a and 6.
233. Heraclides, op. cit., in note 5, pp. 35-36.
234. For the Niger Tuaregs, see Table 1, Section 3d.
235. For a useful summary of this debate, see Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 81-92, and Mark Hoffman, 'Normative International Theory: Approaches and Issues', in A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light (eds.), Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter, 1994), pp. 33-34.
236. For a useful summary of this debate, see Charles R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 81-92, and Mark Hoffman, 'Normative International Theory: Approaches and Issues', in A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light (eds.), Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter, 1994), pp. 33-34.
237. Daniel Bach, 'Le General de Gaulle et la Guerre Civil au Nigeria', Canadian Journal of African Studies, (Vol. 14, No. 2, 1980), pp. 266-67.
238. Alexis Heraclides, 'Secessionist Minorities and External Involvement', International Organization (Vol. 44, No. 3, 1990), pp. 368-76.
239. For the importance of affective reasons in external involvement, see ibid, pp. 370-72.
240. Fred C. Iklé, Every War Must End (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1971).
241. Gurr, op. cit., in note 6, p. 298.