Linking parent involvement with student achievement: Do race and income matter?

Journal of Educational Research

Volumn 93, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 11-30

  Desimone, Laura ^a  

^a AMERICAN INSTITUTES FOR RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0012382836     PISSN: 00220671     EISSN: 19400675     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00220679909597625     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Alexander, K. L., Natriello, G., & Pallas, A. M. (1985). For whom the school bell tolls: The impact of dropping out on cognitive performance. American Sociological Review, 50, 409-420
2. Astone, N. M, & McLanahan, S. (1991), Family structure, parental practices, and high school completion. American Sociological Review, 56, 309-320
3. Atwood, N. K., & Doherty, W. J. (1984). Toward equity and excellence in math and science education. Urban Review; 16(4), 235-248
4. Bachman, J., Green, S., & Wirtanen, I. D. (1971). Dropping out-Problem or symptom? In youth in transition series (Vol. 3, pp, 169-183). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research
5. Baker, A. (1996). Parents as school partners project: Final report. New York: National Council of Jewish Women
6. Baker, D. R, & Stevenson, D. L. (1987). Mothers' strategies for children's school achievement: Managing the transition to high school. Sociology of Education, 59, 156-166
7. Bar-Tal, D., & Bar-Zohar, Y. (1977). The relationship between perception of locus of control and academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2(1), 181-199
8. Baumrind, D. (1974). The development of instrumental competence through socialization. In A. D. Pick (Ed,), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 3-46). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
9. Becher, R. M. (1984). Parent involvement: A review of research and principles of successful practice. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education
10. Benson, C. S. (1979, May). Household production of human capital: Time uses of parents and children as inputs. Paper presented at the National Symposium, Efficiency and Equity in Educational Finance, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
11. Berends, M., & Koretz, D. M. (in press). Identifying students at risk of low achievement in national data. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
12. Berndt, T. J., Laychak, A. E., & Park, K. (1990). Friends' influence on adolescents' academic achievement motivation: An experimental study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 664-671
13. Blalock, Hubert M. (1984). Contextual-effects models: Theoretical and methodological issues. Annual Review of Sociology, 10, 353-372
14. Bollen, K. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley
15. Borman, K. M., Cookson, P. W., & Spade, J. (1996). Implementing educational reform: Sociological perspectives on educational policy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex
16. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Is early intervention effective? Columbia Teachers College Record, 76, 279-303
17. Bryk, A., & Raudenbush, S. W, (1994). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
18. Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1989). Turning points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. New York: Author
19. Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1996). Years of promise: A comprehensive learning strategy for America's children. New York: Author
20. Catsambis, S., & Garland, J. (1997, December). Parental involvement in students' education during middle school and high school; Report No. 181. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University; Washington, DC: Howard University: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk
21. Center for Early Adolescence. (1984). Girls, math, and science: issues in middle-grade education research and resources. Raleigh: North Carolina University, Center for Early Adolescence
22. Chavkin, N. F., & Williams, D. L. Jr. (1993). Minority parents and the elementary school: Attitudes and practices. In N. F. Chavkin (Ed.), Families and school in a pluralistic society (pp. 73-84). Albany: State University of New York Press
23. Clark, R. M. (1983). Family life and school achievement: Why poor black children succeed or fail. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
24. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
25. Cohen, J. (1990). Things 1 have learned (so far). American Psychologist, 45(12), 1304-1312
26. Coleman, J. S. (1987a). Families and schools. Educational Researcher 16, 32-38
27. Coleman, J. S. (1987b), Social capital and the development of youth. Momentum, 18(4), 6-8
28. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 95-120
29. Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L, (1966). Equality of education opportunity. Report from the Office of Education, Superintendent of Documents Catalog No. FS 5.238: 38001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
30. Coleman, J. S., & Hoffer, T. (1987). Public and private schools: The impact of communities. New York: Basic Books
31. Comer, J. P. (1980). School power: Implications of an intervention project. New York: Free Press
32. Comer, J. P. (1988). Educating poor minority children. Scientific American, 259(5), 42-48
33. Comer, J. P, & Haynes, N. M. (1991). Parent involvement in schools: An ecological approach. Elementary School Journal, 91, 271-277
34. Conger, A. J. (1974). A revised definition for suppressor variables: A guide to their identification arid interpretation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 35-46
35. Conger, A. J., & Jackson, D. N, (1972). Suppressor variables, prediction, and the interpretation of psychological relationships. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 32, 579-599
36. Connell, J. P, Spencer, M. B., & Aber, J. L. (1994). Educational risk and resilience in African-American youth: Context, self, action, and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65, 493-506
37. Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for field settings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
38. Currie, J. M, (1997). Choosing among alternative programs for poor children. The Future of Children, 7, 113-131
39. Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1991), Involving parents in the schools: A process of empowerment. American Journal of Education, 100, 20-46
40. Desimone, L. (1996). Comparing the relationships of parent involvement and locus of control to adolescent school achievement: An analysis of racial/ethnic and income differences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
41. Devaney, B. L., Ellwood, M. R., & Love, J. M. (1997). Programs that mitigate the effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children, 7, 88-112
42. Diprete, T. A., & Fomstal, J. D. (1994). Multilevel models: Methods and substance. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 331-357
43. Dornbusch, S. M., Ritter, P. L., Leiderman, P. H., Roberts, D. F, & Fraleigh, M. J. (1987). The relation of parenting style to adolescent school performance. Child Development, 58, 1244-1257
44. Duncan, G. J. (1988). Volatility of family income over the life course. In P. Baltes, D. Featherman. & R. M. Lemer (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (pp. 317-358). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
45. Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early-childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296-318
46. Duncan, G. J., Yeung, W, Brooks-Gunn, J., & Smith, J. R. (1998). How much does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children? American Sociological Review, 63, 406-423
47. Duncan, O. D., Featherman, D. L., & Duncan, B. (1972). Socioeconomic background and achievement. New York: Seminar Press
48. Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1993). Parent-school involvement during the early adolescent years. Teachers College Record, 94, 568-587
49. Education Commission of the States. (1997). Parent involvement in education. Denver, CO: Author
50. Epstein, J. (1986). Parents reactions to teacher practices of parent involvement. The Elementary School Journal, 56, 277-294
51. Epstein, J. L. (1987). Effects on student achievement of teachers' practices of parental involvement. In S. Silvern (Ed.), Literacy through family, community; and school interaction. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press
52. Epstein, J. (1991). Paths to partnership: What we can learn from federal, state, district, and school initiatives. Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 344-349
53. Epstein, J. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (6th ed., pp. 1139-1151). New York: Macmillan
54. Epstein, J., & Lee, S. (1995). National patterns of school and family connections in the middle grades. In B. Ryan, G. Adams, T. Gullotta, R. Weissberg, & R. Hampton (Eds.), The family-school connection: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 108-154). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
55. Ethnicity and education forum: What difference does difference make? (1997). Harvard Educational Review, 67(2), 169-187
56. Fehrmann, P. G., Keith, T. Z., & Reimers, T. M, (1987). Home influence on school learning: Direct and indirect effects of parent involvement on high school grades. The Journal of Educational Research, 80, 330-337
57. Fejgin, N. (1995). Factors contributing to the academic excellence of American Jewish and Asian students. Sociology of Education, 68(1), 18-30
58. Fine, M., & Cook, D, (1993). Apjparent involvement: Reflections on parents, power and urban public schools. Teachers College Record, 94, 682-710
59. Fletcher, A. C., Darling, N. E., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1995). The company they keep: Relation of adolescents' adjustment and behavior to their friends' perceptions of authoritative parenting in the social network. Developmental Psychology, 31, 300-310
60. Fligstein, N., & Fernandez, R. M. (1985). Educational transitions of Whites and Mexican-Americans. In G. Borjas & M. Tienda (Eds.), Hispanles in the U.S. economy (pp. 161-192). Orlando, FL: Academic Press
61. Gamoran, A. (1992). Social factors in education. In M. Alkin (Ed.) Encyclopedia of educational research (pp. 1222-1229). New York: Macmillan
62. Gamoran, A., Nystrand, M., Berends, M., & LePore, PC. (1995). An organizational analysis of the effects of ability grouping. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 687-715
63. Garcia Coll, C, Thorne, B., Cooper, C., Eccles, J., Scott-Jones, D., & Nakashima, C. (1996). Beyond social categories: Issues around race, ethnicity, and social class in development research. MacArthur research network on successful pathways through middle childhood. Working Paper
64. Garrett, P., Ng'andu, N., & Ferron, J. (1994). Poverty experience of young children and the quality of their home environments. Child Development, 65, 331-345
65. Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994, 20 USC 5801 et seq
66. Gonzales, N.A., Cauce, A.M., Friendman, R.J., & Mason, C.A. (1996). Family, peer, and neighborhood influences on academic achievement among African-American adolescents: One-year prospective effects, American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 365-388
67. Griffith, J. (1996). Relation of parental involvement, empowerment, and school traits to student academic performance. The Journal of Educational Research, 90, 33-41
68. Grissmer, D.W., Kirby, S.N., Berends, M., & Williamson, S. (1994). Student achievement and the changing American family. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
69. Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994), Parents' involvement in children's schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization and motivation model. Child Development, 65, 237-252
70. Grusky, D. B, (1994). The contours of social stratification. In D. B. Grusky (Ed.), Social stratification in sociological perspective: Class, race and gender (pp. 3-35). Boulder, CO: Westview
71. Hagerty, C., Dugoni, B., Reed, L., Cederlund, A., Taylor, J., National Opinion Research Center. (1996). National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS:88/94). Methodology report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education
72. Hahn, A. (1987). Teaching out to America's dropouts: What to do? Phi Delta Kappan, 69(4), 256-263
73. Hall, V. C., Howe, A., Merkey, S., & Lederman, N. (1986). Behavior, motivation, and achievement in desegregated junior high school science classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(2), 108-115
74. Heclo, H. H. (1997). Values underpinning poverty programs for children. The Future of Children, 7, 141-148
75. Henderson, A. T, & Berla, N. (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement. St. Louis, MO: Danforth Foundation and Flint, MI: Mott (C.S.) Foundation
76. Herman, J. L., & Yeh, J. P, (1983). Some effects of parent involvement in schools. Urban Review, 15, 11-17
77. Hernandez, D. J. (1994). Children's changing access to resources: A historical perspective. Social Policy Report, 8, 1-23
78. Hess, R. D., & McDevitt, T. M, (1984). Some cognitive consequences of maternal intervention techniques: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 55, 2017-2030
79. Hetherington, E. M., Camara, K. A., & Featherman, D. L. (1983). Achievement and intellectual functioning of children in one-parent households, In J. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 205-284). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman
80. Heyns, B. (1982). The influence of parents' work on children's school achievement. In S. B. Kamerman & C. D. Hayes (Eds.), Families that work: Children in a changing world (pp. 229-267). Washington, DC: National Academy Press
81. Heyns, B., & Catsambis, S. (1986). Mother's employment and children's achievement: A critique. Sociology of Education, 59(3), 140-151
82. Hochschild, J. (1981). What's fair? American beliefs about distributive justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
83. Hoffman, L. W. (1980). The effects of maternal employment on the academic attitudes and performance of school-aged children. School Psychology Review; 9(4), 319-335
84. Hoffman, L. W. (1989). Effects of maternal employment in the two-parent family. American Psychologist, 44, 282-292
85. Holden, C. (1987). Female math anxiety on the wane. Science, 236, 660-661
86. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V, Bassler, O. C., & Brissie, J. S. (1987). Parent involvement: Contributions of teacher efficacy, school socioeconomic status, and other school characteristics. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 417-435
87. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Bassler, O. C., & Brissie, J. S. (1992). Explorations in parent-school relations. The Journal of Educational Research, 85, 287-294
88. Hoover-Dempsey, K., & Sandler, H. M. (1995). Parental involvement in children's education: Why does it make a difference? Teachers College Record, 97(2), 310-331
89. Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children's education? Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 3-42
90. Horowitz, D. L. (1975). Ethnic identity. In N. Glazer & D. R Moynihan (Eds.), Ethnicity: Theory and experience (pp. 111-140). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
91. Improving America's School Act of 1994, 20 USC 6301 et seq
92. Ingels, S. J., Abraham, S.Y., Karr, R., Spencer, B. D., & Frankel, M. R. (1990). National Education Longitudinal Study of1988, base year: Student components data file user's manual. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics
93. Ingels, S. J., Abraham, S.Y., Rasinski, K. A., Karr, R., Spencer, B. D., & Frankel, M. R. (1990). National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, base year: Parent components data file user's manual Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics
94. Ingels, S. J., Thalji, L., Pullium, P, Bartot, V. H. & Frankel, M. R. (1994), NELS.88 second follow-up parent component data file user's manual. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics
95. Jöreskog, K.G., & Sörbom, D. (1989). Lisrel 7: A guide to the program and applications. Chicago: SPSS, Inc
96. Katkovsky, W., Crandall, V. C., & Good, S. (1967). Parental antecedents of children's beliefs in internal-external control of reinforcements in intellectual achievement situations. Child Development, 38, 765-776
97. Kaufman, R, & Rasinski, K.A. (1991). National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988: Quality of the responses of eighth grade students in NELS:88. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
98. Keith, R B., & Lichtman, M. (1992, April). Testing the influences of parental involvement on Mexican-American eighth grade students' academic achievement: A structural equations analysis. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco
99. Keith, T. Z., Keith, P. B., Troutman, G. C., Bickley, R G., Trivette, R S., & Singh, K. (1993). Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data. School Psychology Review, 22(3), 474-496
100. Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America's schools. New York: Crown
101. Krein, S. F., & Beller, A. H. (1988). Educational attainment of children from single-parent families: Differences by exposure, gender, and race. Demography, 25, 221-234
102. Lareau, A. (1987). Social class differences in family-school relationships: The importance of cultural capital. Sociology of Education, 60(2), 73-85
103. Lareau, A. (1989). Home advantage: Social class and parental intervention in elementary education. New York: Falmer
104. Lareau, A., & Shumar, W (1996). The problem of individualism in family-school policies. Sociology of Education (extra issue), 24-39
105. Lee, S. (1994). Family-school connections and students' education: Continuity and change of family involvement from the middle grades to high school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University
106. Lee, V. E., Bryk, A. S., & Smith, J. (1993). The organization of effective secondary schools. Review of Research in Education, 19, 171-267
107. Levy, F., & Mumane, R. J. (1992), U.S. earnings levels and earnings inequality: A review of recent trends and proposed explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 30, 1333-1381
108. Lewit, E. M., Terman, D. L., & Behrman, R. E. (1997). Children and poverty: Analysis and recommendations. The Future of Children, 2, 4-24
109. MacDonald, A. P. (1971), Internal-external locus of control: Parental antecedents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 37, 141-147
110. Manaster, G. J., Chan, J. C, & Safady, R. (1992). Mexican-American migrant students' academic success: Sociological and psychological acculturation. Adolescence, 27, 123-136
111. McLanahan, S. (1985). Family structure and the reproduction of poverty. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 873-901
112. McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What helps, what hurts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
113. Metz, M. H. (1990). How social class differences shape teachers' work. In M. W. McLaughlin, J, E. Talbert, & N. Bascia (Eds.), The contexts of teaching in secondary schools (pp. 40-107). New York: Teachers College Press
114. Milne, A. M., Myers, D. E., Rosenthal, A. S., & Ginsburg, A. (1986). Single parents, working mothers, and the educational achievement of school children. Sociology of Education, 59(3), 125-139
115. Morgan, S. L., & Sorensen, A. (1997, August). Parents' friends and friends 'parents: Network components of social closure and their effects on learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, Canada
116. Moses, R., Kamii, M., Swap, S. M., & Howard, J. (1989). The Algebra Project: Organizing in the spirit of Ella. Harvard Educational Review, 59(4), 423-443
117. Muller, C. (1993). Parent involvement and academic achievement: An analysis of family resources available to the child. In B. Schneider & J. S. Coleman (Eds,), Parents, their children, and schools (pp. 77-114). Boulder, CO: Westview
118. Muller, C. (1995). Maternal employment, parent involvement, and mathematics achievement among adolescents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(1), 85-100
119. Muller, C., & Kerbow, D. (1993). Parent involvement in the home, school, and community. In B. Schneider & J. S. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and schools (pp. 13-42). Boulder, CO: Westview
120. Nardine, F., & Morris, R. D. (1991). Parent involvement in the states: A review of activities and legislation. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(3), 363-366
121. Ogbu, J. U. (1978). Minority education and caste: The American system in cross-cultural perspectives. New York: Academic Press
122. Ogbu, J. U. (1987). Variability in minority school performance: A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4), 312-334
123. Palanki, A., Burch, P., Davies, D. (1992). Mapping the policy landscape: What federal and state governments are doing to promote family-school-community partnerships. (Report No. 7). Baltimore: Center on Families, Communities, Schools & Children's Learning
124. Pallas, A. M, (1993). Schooling in the course of human lives: The social context of education and the transition to adulthood in industrial society. Review of Educational Research, 63, 409-447
125. Pallas, A. M., Entwisle, D R., Alexander, K. L., & Stulka, M. F. (1994). Ability-group effects: Instructional, social or institutional? Sociology of Education, 67(1), 27-46
126. Phillips, L. (1992, April). Parent involvement: Relationships of expectations, goals, and activities to student achievement among minority, socioeconomic, and gender groups. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco
127. Powell, D. R. (1991). How schools support families: Critical policy tensions. Elementary School Journal, 97, 307-319
128. Reynolds, A. J. (1992), Comparing measures of parental involvement and their effects on academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 441-462
129. Rock, D. A., & Pollack, J. M. (1995). Psychometric report for the NELS:88 base year through second follow-up. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics
130. Rossi, J. S, (1990). Statistical power of psychological research: What have we gained in 20 years? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 646-656
131. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1). Whole No. 609
132. Rumberger, R. (1983). Dropping out of high school: The influences of race, sex, and family background. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 199-220
133. Rumberger, R. (1995). Dropping out of middle school: A multilevel analysis of students and schools. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 583-625
134. Schneider, B. (1996). School, parent and community involvement: The federal government invests in social capital. In K. M. Borman, P. W. Cookson Jr., A. R. Sadovnik, & J. Z. Spade (Eds.), Implementing educational reform: Sociological perspectives on educational policy (pp. 193-213). Norwood, NJ: Ablex
135. Schneider, B., & Coleman, J. S. (Eds.). (1993). Parents, their children and schools. Boulder, CO: Westview
136. Schneider, B., & Lee, Y. (1990). A model for academic success: The school and home environment of East Asian students. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 21, 358-377
137. School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, 20 USC 6101 et seq
138. Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313-322
139. Sewell, W. H., Hauser, R. M., & Wolf, W C. (1980). Sex, schooling and occupational status. American Journal of Sociology, 86, 551-583
140. Singh, K., Bickley, P. G., Trivette, R, Keith, T. Z., Keith, P. B., & Anderson, E. (1995). The effects of four components of parental involvement on eighth-grade student achievement: Structural analysis of NELS-88 data. School Psychology Review, 24(2), 299-317
141. Snow, C. E. (1983). Literacy and language: Relationships during the preschool years. Harvard Educational Review, 53(2), 165-189
142. Sorenson, A. B, (1994). The basic concepts of stratification research: Class, status, and power. In D. B. Grusky (Ed.), Social stratification in sociological perspective: Class, race and gender (pp. 229-241). Boulder, CO: Westview
143. Stanton-Salazar, R. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1995). Social capital and the reproduction of inequality: Information networks among Mexican-ori-gin high school students. Sociology of Education, 68(2), 116-135
144. Steinberg, L. D. (1996). Beyond the classroom: Why school reform has failed and what parents need to do. New York: Simon & Schuster
145. Steinberg, L., Eleman, J. D., & Mounts, N S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1424-1436
146. Stevenson, D., & Baker, D. (1987). The family-school relation and the child's school performance. Child Development, 58, 1348-1357
147. Stevenson, H., & Stigler, J. (1992). The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education. New York: Summit Books
148. Stipek, D., & Weisz, J. (1981). Perceived personal control and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 57(1), 101-137
149. Sui-Chu, E. H., & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parent involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(2), 126-141
150. Thorkildsen, R., & Stein, R. S. (1998). Is parent involvement related to student achievement? Exploring the evidence. Research Bulletin, 22, 17-20
151. Tocqueville, A. (1994). Democracy in America. New York: Knopf
152. Tomlinson, L. (1987). Locus of control and its affect on achievement. Unpublished paper, University of Georgia
153. U.S. Department of Education. (1994). Strong families, strong schools. Washington, DC: Author
154. Watson, T, Brown, M., & Swick, K. J. (1983). The relationship of parents' support to children's school achievement. Child Welfare, 62(2), 175-180
155. Willis, R. J. (1986). Wage determinants: A survey and reinterpretation of human capital earnings functions. In O. Ashenfelter & R. Layard (Eds.), Handbook of labor economics (pp. 525-602). Amsterdam: North Holland
156. Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
157. Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Knopf
158. Zellman, G., & Waterman, J. (1998). Understanding the impact of parent school involvement on children's educational outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 91, 370-380