Narratives of triumph and rituals of submission: Charlemagne's mastering of Bavaria

Transactions of the Royal Historical Society

Volumn 9, Issue , 1999, Pages 93-119

  Airlie, Stuart ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0012123808     PISSN: 00804401     EISSN: 14740648     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3679394     Document Type: Review

References (197)

1. 'Bartleby' is a product of the 1850s and is available in a variety of editions; see Herman Melville, Billy Budd, Sailor & Other Stories, ed. H. Beaver (Harmondsworth, 1970).
2. The sneeringly hostile remarks on Charlemagne and the Franks ascribed to an abbot of San Vincenzo al Volturno in the 780s may be an isolated survival but cannot have been an isolated phenomenon: 'Codex Carolinus', no. 67, ed. W. Gundlach, Monumenta Germaniae Historica [hereafter MGH], Epistolae, III, Epistolae Merowingici et Karolini Aevi, 1, 595;
3. see M. McCormick, 'The Liturgy of War in the Early Middle Ages', Viator, 15 (1984), 1-23, at 3-4.
4. For the resources of Christian culture in Bavaria, see, for example, B. Bischoff, Die südostdeutschen Schreibschulen und Bibliotheken der Karolingerzeit (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1974 and 1980),
5. and M. Garrison, 'The Collectanea and medieval florilegia', in Collectanea Pseudo-Bedae, ed. M. Bayless and M. Lapidge (Dublin, 1998), 42-83.
6. The text of the Raffelstet toll ordinance is in Inquisitio e Theloneis Raffelstettensis, ed. A. Boretius and V. Krause, MGH, Capitularia regum Francorum, II (Hanover, 1897), 249-52;
7. see also M. Innes, 'Franks and Slavs c. 700-1000: the problem of European expansion before the millennium', Early Medieval Europe, 6 (1997), 201-16, at 215.
8. Bavarians: F. Losek, Die Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum und der Brief des Erzbischofs Theotmar von Salzburg, MGH, Studien und Texte, 15 (Hanover, 1997);
9. Saxons: Poeta Saxo, ed. P. von Winterfeld, MGH, Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, IV (Berlin, 1899), 1-71,
10. and cf. K. Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an Early Medieval Society (1979), 5-6.
11. By the seventeenth century, Bavarian writers saw the struggle between Tassilo and Charlemagne as a moral drama in which the latter's piety triumphed, according to A. Kraus, 'Tassilo und Karl der Grosse in der bayerischen Geschichtsschreibung des 17. Jahrhunderts', in idem, Bayerische Geschichtswissenschaft in drei Jahrhunderten (Munich, 1979), 34-53;
12. for the rather more regional views of Tassilo in Bavaria in this century, see L. Kolmer, 'Zur Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos III', Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte, 43 (1980), 291-327, at 291, n. 2, and 327, n. 219.
13. P. Roth, Geschichte des Beneficialwesens von den älteren Zeiten bis ins zehnte Jahrhundert (Erlangen, 1850), 388-9;
14. H. Krawinkel, Untersuchungen zum Fränkischen Benefizialrecht (Weimar, 1937), 48-65;
15. Annales Regni Francorum, ed. F. Kurze, MGH, Scriptores rerum germanicarum (Hanover, 1895);
16. K. Reindel, 'Bayern im Karolingerreich', in Karl der Grosse, I, Pasönlichkeit und Geschichte, ed. H. Beumann (Düsseldorf, 1965), 220-4;
17. K. Reindel, 'Die politische Entwicklung', in Handbuch der Bayerischen Geschichte, ed. M. Spindler (Munich, 1967), 127.
18. Peter Classen, 'Bayern und die politischen Mächte im Zeitalter Karls des Grossen und Tassilos', most conveniently available in P. Classen, Ausgewählte Aufsätze, ed. J. Fleckenstein (Sigmaringen, 1983);
19. Kolmer, 'Zur Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos';
20. Matthias Becher, Eid und Herrschaft. Untersuchungenzum Herrscherethos Karls des Grossen (Sigmaringen, 1993), 21-77;
21. Rosamond McKitterick, 'Constructing the Past in the Early Middle Ages: The Case of the Royal Frankish Annals', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, sixth series, 7 (1997), 109-29.
22. On the 'feudal' debate: Susan Reynolds, Fiefs and Vassals (Oxford, 1994), 84-105,
23. together with the exchange on this book between Johannes Fried and Susan Reynolds in German Historical Institute, London: Bulletin, 19.1 (1997), 28-41, and 19.2 (1997), 30-40.
24. For alternative perspectives on both debates, see P. Depreux, 'Tassilon III et le roi des Francs: examen d'une vassalité controversée', Revue Historique, 293 (1995), 23-73,
25. and D. Barthélemy, 'La théorie féodale à l'épreuve de l'anthropologie', Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 52 (1997), 321-41.
26. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialem (1993), xiii, 1.
27. Einhard, Vita Karoli, c. 2, ed. L. Halphen, La Vie de Charlemagne (Paris, 1938), 10;
28. The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations, trans. and ed. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (London and Edinburgh, 1960), continuationes, c. 13, 90-1,
29. with Roger Collins, 'Deception and misrepresentation in early eighth century Frankish historiography', in Karl Martell in seiner Zeit, ed. J. Jarnut, U. Nonn and M. Richter (Sigmaringen, 1994), 239;
30. on the general situation, see Timothy Reuter, Germany in the Early Middle Ages c. 800-1056 (1991), 54-60,
31. and Ian Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751 (1994), 273-92.
32. Good surveys, with extensive bibliographies and notes that render more extensive references here redundant, are J. Jahn, Ducataus Baiuvariorum. Das bairische Herzogtum da Agilolfinger (Stuttgart, 1991)
33. and H. Wolfram, Osterreichische Geschichte 378-907. Grenzen und Räume (Vienna, 1995)
34. Wolfram's monograph can be supplemented by the essays contained in his Salzburg, Bayern, Osterreich: die Conversio Bagoariorum und du Quellen ihrer Zeit, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung, Ergänzungsband 31 (Vienna, 1993).
35. An important study by C. Hammer is forthcoming; I am grateful to him for letting me see a copy of 'Those Wicked Men, Odilo and Our Cousin Tassilo': Two Studies in Eighth-Century Rule in advance of publication.
36. Lex Baiwariorum, Titulus 111, ed. E. von Schwind, MGH, Legum Sectio I, Legum nationum Germanicarum, v. ii (Hanover, 1928), 313.
37. Einhard, Vita Karoli, c. 1, 8.
38. H. Siems, 'Lex Baiuvariorum', in Handwörterbuch zur Deutschen Rechtsgeschichte, II, ed. A. Erler and E. Kaufman (Berlin, 1978), cols 1887-8 and 1894-5;
39. Jahn, Ducatus Baiuvariorum, 1-3.
40. The anqituity and depth of Agilolfing - Carolingian rivalry are stressed by J. Jarnut, 'Genealogie und politische Bedeutung der agilolfingischen Herzöge', Mitteilungen des Institut für Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung, 99 (1991), 1-22.
41. Lex Baiwariorum, Tituli 11.1, 11.8a, 11.9 and 111, 291, 302-3 and 313.
42. H. Wanderwitz, 'Quellenkritische Studien zu den bayerischen Besitzlisten des 8. Jahrhunderts', Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters, 39 (1983), 27-84, esp. 68-77;
43. I. Haselbach, Aufstieg und Herrschaft der Karlinger in der Darstellung der sogenannten Annales Metteuses priores (Lübeck and Hamburg, 1970), 87-102, 107-11;
44. Becher, Eid und Herrschaft, 25-35,
45. and Depreux, 'Tassilon III et le roi des Francs', 28-37, review the evidence.
46. H. Wolfram, Intitulatio I. Lateinische Königs- und Fürstentitel bis zum Ende des 8. Jahrhunderts, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung, Ergänzungsband 21 (Vienna, 1967), 155-84, esp. at 181-2;
47. see also Wolfram, Grenzen und Räume, 132.
48. Letter of Clemens peregrinus, ed. E. Dümmler, MGH, Epistolae, IV, Epistolae Karolini Aevi, II (Berlin, 1895), 496-7.
49. Cathwulf's letter is edited by E. Dümmler in MGH, Epistolae, IV, Epetolae Karolini Aevi, II, 501-5;
50. for comment, J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (Oxford, 1971), 100-2,
51. and M. Garrison, 'The English and the Irish at the Court of Charlemagne', in Karl der Grosse und sein Nachwirken: 1200 Jahre Kultur und Wissenschaft in Europa, ed. P. L. Butzer, M. Kerner and W. Oberschelp (Turnholt, 1997), 102.
52. On Clemens and Freising, see Bischoff, Die südostdeutschen Screibschulen, I, 61-2, and II, 264.
53. Garrison, 'English and the Irish', 102, 116;
54. cf. The references to Gideon, Moses and Aaron in the sacramentaries of Gellone and Angoulême: Liber Sacramentorum Gellonensis, at, e.g., no. 2091 and no. 2755, ed. A. Dumas and J. Deshusses, Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina, vol. 159 (Turnholt, 1981), 296, 432;
55. Liber Sacramentorum Engolismensis, at, e.g., no. 2308, ed. P. Saint-Roch, Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina, vol. 159C (Turnholt, 1987), 358,
56. and see M. McCormick, Eternal Victory (Cambridge, 1986), 347-62. The Sacramentary of Angoulême's reference to 'tyrants' (loc. cit.) is worth juxtaposing with Einhard's use of this term, as cited at n. 9 above.
57. Clemens peregrinus, 496; cf. Judges 18.1 and J. L. Nelson, 'Kingship and empire in the Carolingian world', in Carolingian Culture: emulation and innovation, ed. R. McKitterick (Cambridge, 1994), 57.
58. Clemens peregrinus, 497.
59. J. L. Nelson, 'The Siting of the Council at Frankfort: Some Reflections on Family and Politics', in Das Frankfurter Konzil von 794, ed. R. Berndt (Mainz, 1997), 155.
60. M. Hasdenteufel, 'Das Salzburger Erintrudis-Kloster und die Agilolfinger', Mitteilungen des Instituts für Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung, 93 (1985), 1-29.
61. C. Bowlus, Franks, Moravians and Magyars (Philadelphia, 1995), 37-8;
62. valuable surveys of Agilolfing Salzburg in Virgil von Salzburg Missionar und Gelehrter, ed. H. Dopsch and R. Juffinger (Salzburg, 1985).
63. In general, see W. Störmer, Früher Adel. Studien zur politischen Führungsschicht im Fränkisch-Deutschen Reich vom 8. bis 11. Jahrhundert, 2 vols (Stuttgart, 1973),
64. F. Prinz, 'Herzog und Adel im agilulfingischen Bayern', Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte, 25 (1962), 283-311,
65. and reprinted in Zur Geschichte der Bayern, ed. K. Bosl, Wege da Forschung, 60 (Darmstadt, 1965), 225-63, from which citations are taken;
66. A variety of views can be consulted in Früh- und hochmittelalterlicher Adel in Schwaben und Bayern, ed. I. Eberl, W. Hartung and J. Jahn, REGIO. Forschungen zur schwäbischen: Regionalgeschichte, 1 (Sigmaringendorf, 1988),
67. and there is a brief summary in English in Bowlus, Franks, Moravians and Magyars, 34.
68. Prinz, 'Herzog und Adel', 235;
69. for more nuanced views, see G. Diepolder, 'Schäftlarn: Nachlese in den Traditionen der Gründerzeit', in Früh- und hochmittelalterlicher Adel in Schwaben und Bayern, 180-2;
70. W. Störmer, 'Die bayerische Herzogskirche', in Der hl. Willibald - Klosterbechoff oder Bistumsgründer?, ed. H. Dickerhof, E. Reiter and S. Weinfurter (Regensburg, 1990), 134-6;
71. Depreux, 'Tassilon III et Ie roi des Francs', 46.
72. Die Traditionen des Hochstifts Freising, ed. T. Bitterauf, 2 vols (Munich, 1905, 1909), 1, no. 193(b);
73. this is trusted by Nelson, 'Siting of the Council at Frankfort', 155,
74. and see also M. J. Enright, 'Iona, Tara and Soissons (Berlin and New York, 1985), 101,
75. and Bowlus, Franks, Moravians and Magyars, 33, 37;
76. a more sceptical view in J. Jahn, 'Bischof Arbeo von Freising und die Politik seiner Zeit', in Ethnogenese und Uberlieferung: angewandte Methoden da Frühmittelalterforschung, ed. K. Brunner and B. Merta (Vienna and Munich, 1994), 157-8.
77. Compare Arbeo's Vita Corbiniani, c. 24, in Arbeonis Episcopi Frisingensis Vitae Sanctorum Haimhrammi et Corbiniani, ed. B. Krusch, MGH, Scriptores rerum germanicarum (Hanover, 1920), 215,
78. with Paschasius Radbertus, Vita Sancti Adalhardi Corbeiensis Abbatis, c. 7, ed. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina, 112 (Paris, 1852), cols 1511-12;
79. on Adalhard's response to the ending of Charlemagne's Lombard marriage, see B. Kasten, Adalhard von Corbie (Düsseldorf, 1985), 18-35.
80. On Arbeo's Vitae, see K. Bosl, 'Der Adelsheilige', in Speculum Historiale. Festschrift für Johannes Spörl, ed. C. Bauer, L. Boehm and M. Müller (Freiburg and Munich, 1965), 167-87.
81. Das Vabrüdaungsbuch von St. Peter in Salzburg. Vollständige Faksimile-Ausgabe im Originalformat der Handschrift A1 aus dem Archiv von St. Peter in Salzburg, ed. K. Forstner (Graz, 1974), pag. 10 and pag. 20;
82. on hostility to Liutpirga in Frankish sources, Kolmer, 'Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos', 315.
83. J. Semmler, 'Geistiges Leben in Salzburg (5.-10. Jahrhundert)', in Virgil von Salzburg, 367;
84. H. Wolfram, 'Virgil als Abt und Bischof', ibid., 345;
85. Family membership could, however, have a bearing on how names were entered into an ordo: see K. Schmid, 'Über das Verhältnis von Person und Gemeinschaft im früheren Mittelalter', Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 1 (1967), 225-49, esp. at 242-6.
86. J. Semmler, 'Zu den bayrisch-westfränkischen Beziehungen in karolingischer Zeit', Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte, 29 (1966), 344-424;
87. Störmer, 'Die bayerische Hezogskirche', 134-6.
88. on Arn's being given to Freising in 758, Traditionen des Hochstifts Freising, 1, no. 11,
89. with Wolfram, Grenzen und Räume, 170-1;
90. judicious summing-up in Störmer, 'Die bayerische Herzogskirche', esp. at 136.
91. Reindel, 'Bayern im Karolingerreich', 221-2;
92. Wanderwitz, 'Quellenkritische Studien zu den bayerischen Besitzlisten', 78;
93. W. Hartung, 'Bertolde in Baiern', in Früh- und hochmittelalterlicher Adel, though this should be compared with J. Jahn, 'Bayerische Pfalzgrafen im 8. Jahrhundert?', ibid.
94. G. Diepolder, 'Freisinger Traditionen und Memorialeinträge im Salzburger Liber Vitae und im Reichenauer Verbrüderungsbuch', Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte, 58 (1995), 147-89, esp. at 180-8.
95. 'Codex Carolinus', nos 80, 82, 611-14, 615-16;
96. R. Collins, Charlemagne (Basingstoke and London, 1998), 72.
97. The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar, 'continuationes', c. 12, 90;
98. R. Schieffer, 'Karl Martell und seine Familie', in Karl Martell und seiner Zeit, 303-15.
99. The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar, 'continuationes', c. 25, 98;
100. Astronomus, Vita Hludowici Imperatoris, c. 21, ed. E. Tremp, MGH, Scriptores rerum germanicarum (Hanover, 995), 348;
101. relevant discussion in M. Becher, 'Zum Geburtsjahr Tassilos III', Zeitschrif für bayerische Landesgeschichte, 52 (1989), 3-12,
102. J. L. Nelson, The Frankish World 750-900 (London and Rio Grande, 1996), xxv, 232.
103. Wanderwitz, 'Quellenkritische Studien zu den bayerischen Besitzlisten', 55;
104. On Hildegarde, S. Airlie, 'Semper Fideles? Loyauté envers les Carolingiens comme constituant de l'identité aristocratique', in La Royauté et les Elites dans l'Europe carolingienne, ed. R. Le Jan (Lille, 1998), 131.
105. On events of 781, see Annales Regni Francorum, a. 781, 58,
106. on Theodo's prominence, see Traditional des Hochstifts Freising, 1, no. 106 (a. 782)
107. D. Bullough, The Age of Charlemagne, 2nd edn (1980), 59-67.
108. Annales Regni Francorum, a.787, 72-8;
109. for the English translation of this and many other relevant texts, see P. D. King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources (Kendal, 1987).
110. Kolmer, 'Zur Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos III', 306-11;
111. P. E, Schramm Kaiser, Kónige und Päpste, IV.i (Stuttgart, 1978), 212.
112. Annales Laureshamenses, a. 787, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH, Scriptores, 1 (Hanover, 1826), 33;
113. M. Innes, 'Kings, Monks and Patrons: Political Identities and the Abbey of Lorsch', in La Royauté et les Elites dans l'Europe carolingienne, 315-16.
114. Depreux, 'Tassilon III et le roi des Francs', 69, 73,
115. Tassilo: Annales Regni Francorum, a. 781, 58,
116. and Collins, Charlemagne, 84;
117. Widukind: Annales Regni Francorum, a. 785, 70,
118. and G. Althoff, Spielregeln der Politik im Mittelalter (Darmstadt, 1997), 174;
119. Benevento: Annales Regni Francorum (revised), a. 786, 75,
120. and one should juxtapose this with the taking of hostages from still recalcitrant Lombards, Annales Nazariani, a. 787, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH, Scriptores, 1, 43,
121. and Bullough, Age of Charlemagne, 59.
122. Annales Nazariani, a. 786, 41-2;
123. K. Brunner, 'Auf den Spuren verlorener Traditionen', Peritia, 2 (1983), 1-22, at 6-12;
124. Innes, 'Kings, Monks and Patrons', 313-16.
125. McCormick, Eternal Victory, 359-60;
126. Althoff, Spielregeln der Politik, 99-125.
127. Annales Nazariani, a. 787, 43;
128. Brunner, 'Auf den Spuren';
129. K. Leyser, 'Ritual, Ceremony and Gesture: Ottonian Germany', in idem, Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: the Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries (London and Rio Grande, 1994), 189, citing A. van Gennep.
130. T. C. W. Blanning, 'Frederick the Great and German culture', in Royal and Republican Sovereignty in Early Modern Europe. Essays in memory of Ragnhild Hatton, ed. R. Oresko, G. C. Gibbs and H. M. Scott (Cambridge, 1997), 529-30.
131. Such rituals mattered even in the relatively text-based societies of the Carolingian world though they may have possessed greater intensity in the more oral society of the Ottoman Reich; see Leyser, 'Ritual, Ceremony and Gesture', 192-6,
132. and H. Mayr-Harting, Ottonian Book Illumination, 2 vols (1991), 1, 62.
133. In general, J. L. Nelson, Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe (1986) remains indispensable.
134. Nuanced views of the Sutton Hoo 'sceptre' can be found in J. Campbell, 'The Impact of the Sutton Hoo Discoveries on the Study of Anglo-Saxon History', in Voyage to the Other World, ed. C. B. Kendall and P. S. Wells (Minneapolis, 1992), 84,
135. and S. Keynes, 'Raedwald the Bretwalda', ibid., 116 (from where the quotation is taken);
136. M. Ryan, 'The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial and Ireland: Some Celtic Perspectives', in Sutton Hoo - Fifty Years After, ed. R. Farrell and C. N. De Vegvar (Oxford, Ohio), 85-90.
137. Tassilo's staff is placed in a broad context by G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, 111 (Kiel, 1883), 111-12, 249-51;
138. P. E. Schramm, Herrschaftszeichen und Staatssymbolik, Schriften der MGH 13, 3 vols (Stuttgart, 1954-6), 11, 192-210, 286-7;
139. A. Gauert, 'Das Zepter Tassilos III.', Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters, 18 (1962), 214-23.
140. Annales Nazariani, a. 787, 43;
141. Schramm, Herrschaftszeichen und Staatssymbolik, 11, 209;
142. Among other contemporary objects that connected holiness with a dynastic sense, one might point to the Tassilo chalice itself, and it is possible that the ring of St Amulf, holy ancestor, of the Carolingians, was preserved at Metz; it certainly featured in a story that Charlemagne recounted: see K. Hauck, 'Die Ausbreitung des Glaubens in Sachsen und die Verteidigung der römische Kirche als konkurriende Herrschaftsaufgaben Karls des Grossen', Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 4 (1970), 138-72.
143. Breton leaders yielded their swords to Charlemagne when they surrendered to him in 799: J. L. Nelson, 'Kingship and Royal Government', in The New Cambridge Medieval History II c. 700-c. 900, ed. R. McKitterick (Cambridge, 1995), 428.
144. Annales Nazariani, a. 788, 43-4;
145. Brunner, 'Auf den Spuren verlorener Traditionen', 15-16.
146. H. Keller, 'Die Investitur', Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 27 (1993), 51-86, at 56, 67-8.
147. Tassilo surrendered on 3 October at the Lechfeld; see J. F. Böhmer, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern, revised by E. Mühlbacher and J. Lechner (Innsbruck, 1908), 290g and 290h.
148. The feast of St Denis is 9 October; for the importance of such dates in Carolingian political life, see M. Sierck, Festtag und Politik (Cologne, Weimar and Vienna, 1995).
149. On Carolingian victory on the banks of the Lech in 743, Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar, continuationes', c. 26, 99.
150. G. Koziol, Begging Pardon and Favor: Ritual and Political Order in Early Medieval France (Ithaca and London, 1992), 7-8, 316.
151. The text of Hibernicus Exul is edited by E. Dümmler in MGH, Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, 1 (Berlin, 1881), 396-9;
152. there is a partial English translation in P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (1985), 174-9.
153. For the serpent and Tassilo's sin, see Hibernicus Exul, lines 62-8, p. 397;
154. on the poem's moral concerns, see P. Godman, Poets and Emperors (Oxford, 1987), 62,
155. and C. Ratkowitsch, Karolus Magnus - Alter Aeneas, Alter Martinus, Alter Iustinus (Vienna, 1997), 41.
156. Hibernicus Exul, lines 94-103, p. 399;
157. on such gestures, Gauert, 'Das Zepter Herzog Tassilos III', 221,
158. and, for broader context, J. L. Nelson, 'The Lord's anointed and the people's choice: Carolingian royal ritual', in Rituals of Royalty, ed. D. Cannadine and S. Price (Cambridge, 1987), 168.
159. M. Garrison, 'The emergence of Carolingian Latin literature and the court of Charlemagne (780-814)', in Carolingian Culture, ed. McKitterick, 128;
160. see also her 'English and the Irish', 100,
161. and, for dating and context, A. Ebenbauer, Carmen Historicum: Untersuchungen zur historischen Dichtung im karolingischen Europa (Vienna, 1978), 18-29, esp. at 28-9.
162. E. Said, The World, the Text and the Critic (1984), 4, 31-53;
163. on the 'active' nature of ninth-century Carolingian historical writing, see J. L. Nelson, 'History-writing at the courts of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald', in Historiographie im frühen Mittelalter, ed. A. Scharer and G. Scheibelreiter (Vienna and Munich, 1994), 435-42.
164. S. Riezler, 'Ein verlorenes bairisches Geschichtswerk des achten Jahrhunderts', Sitzungsberichte der königlichen bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Philologisch-Historische Klasse, 1 (1881), 247-91;
165. cited in the translation of King, Charlemagne: Translated Sources, 342.
166. Annales Regni Francorum, a. 788, 80-4;
167. provides a clear guide to events, but cf. R. Schieffer, 'Ein politischer Prozess des 8. Jahrhunderts im Vexierspiegel der Quellen', in Das Frankfurter Konzil von 794, 179-82.
168. On the accusations of colluding with the Avars, see Kolmer, 'Zur Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos III', 323-5,
169. and W. Pohl, Die Awaren: Ein Steppenvolk in Mitteleuropa 567-822 n. Chr. (Munich, 1988), 313-14.
170. Annales Regni Francorum, a. 745, a. 772, a. 775, a. 778, a. 787, a. 788, 4, 34, 40-2, 50, 76-8, 80.
171. Lex Baiwariorum, Titulus 11.9, 302-3. On Einhard's description of wars, J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Medieval History (Oxford, 1975), 30-1.
172. Schieffer, 'Ein politischer Prozess', 175.
173. See Charlemagne's charter no. 162, ed. E. Mühlbacher, MGH, Diphmala Karolinorum, 1 (Hanover, 1906).
174. J. L. Nelson, The Frankish World, 236.
175. Wanderwitz, 'Quellenkritische Studien zu den bayerischen Besitzlisten', 81-4.
176. Annales Regni Francorum, a. 788, 82, reports the exiling of supporters of Tassilo; testimony of such supporters is preserved in the texts collected in B. Bischoff, Salzburger Formelbücher und Briefe aus Tassilonischer und Karolingischer Zeit, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte Jahrgang 1973, part 4 (Munich, 1973).
177. For church concerns, see the Notitia Arnonis and Breves Notitiae drawn up by the church of Salzburg in Salzburger Urkundenbuch, ed. W. Hauthaler, 1 (Salzburg, 1910), no. 1.A and no. 1.B;
178. On Gerold, see M. Borgolte, Die Grafen Alemanniens in Merowingischer und Karolingischer Zeit. Eine Prosopographie (Sigmaringen, 1986), 119-21.
179. A. Krah, Absetzungsverfahren als Spiegelbild von Königsmacht (Aalen, 1987), 36-8;
180. Kolmer, 'Zur Kommendation und Absetzung Tassilos', 316,
181. see the connection between Bavarian unrest and Pippin's revolt; a rather different perspective in Nelson, 'Siting of the Council at Frankfort', 160-3. I intend to discuss Pippin's conspiracy more fully elsewhere.
182. Synod of Frankfurt, c. 3, ed. A. Boretius, MGH, Capitularia Regum Francorum, 1 (Hanover, 1885), 74;
183. contemporary texts dealing with Charlemagne's activities at Frankfurt in 794 are conveniently gathered together in E. Orth, 'Frankfurt', in Die deutschen Königspfalzen, ed. T. Zotz, vol. I, Hessen, parts 2, 3 and 4 (Göttingen, 1985-96). Comprehensive treatment of the council in Das Frankfurter Konzil von 794.
184. M. de Jong, 'What was public about public penance? Paenitentia publica and justice in the Carolingian world', in La Giustizia nell'alto Medioeveo (secoli IX-XI), Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull'alto Medioeveo, 45 (Spoleto, 1997), 880-1.
185. Synod of Frankfurt, c. 3, 74;
186. translation in King, Charlemagne, Translated Sources, 224; my emphasis.
187. Synod of Frankfurt, c. 3, 74;
188. Schieffer, 'Ein politischer Prozess des 8. Jahrhunderts', 167-9.
189. Saxons: 'Indiculus Obsidum Saxonum Moguntium Deducendorum', ed. A. Boretius, MGH, Capitularia, 1, 233-4;
190. Lombards and Beneventans: as above at n. 58; Avar treasure: Einhard, Vita Karoli, c. 13, 38-40;
191. pope and envoys from Jerusalem: Annates Regni Francorum, a. 799, 106-8.
192. on the political creativity necessitated by acquisition of empire, see H. Mayr-Harting, 'Charlemagne, the Saxons and the Imperial Coronation of 800', English Historical Review, 111 (1996), 1113-33.
193. Orth, 'Frankfurt', 178-82;
194. cf. D. Bullough, 'Aula Renovata: the Carolingian Court before the Aachen Palace', Proceedings of the British Academy, 71 (1985), 267-301, esp. at 295-301.
195. Einhard, Via Karoli, c. 11, 34-6;
196. later in the ninth century Tassilo's dangerous Carolingian connections were neutralised in a haze of benevolent nostalgia: see Vita S. Hugonis, c. 1, c. 2, ed. J. van der Straeten, 'Vie Inédite de S. Hugues Evêque de Rouen', Analecta Bollandiana, 87 (1969), 235-6.
197. Bischoff, Salzburger Formelbücher und Briefe, 111.23, p. 57, and cf. p. 25. My own text has been assembled in more positive circumstances; versions of this paper were presented to research seminars in the University of Glasgow and All Souls College, Oxford, and I am grateful to the participants on these occasions for comment and advice as I am to the audience who attended the final version at the University of East Anglia. For advice on particular points I am grateful to Simon Dixon, Mary Garrison and Sarah Hamilton.