Seeing Patterns: Models, Visual Evidence and Pictorial Communication in the Work of Barbara McClintock

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 163-195

  Keirns, Carla ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cytogenetics; Diagrams; Genetics; Illustrations; McClintock; Models; Molecular biology; Photographs; Twentieth century; United States

Indexed keywords

ZEA MAYS;

EID: 0011943551     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1004420726771     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Thanks to the following individuals who have read drafts or otherwise shared their insights (none of whom are responsible for any errors that remain): Elizabeth Armstrong, Peter J. Bruns, Eve Buckley, Joshua Buhs, Lena Chen, Nathaniel Comfort, John Dettloff, Thomas Haigh, Donna Cassidy Hanley, Sally Smith Hughes, Susan D. Jones, Robert Kohler, M. Susan Lindee, Erin McLeary, Chris Ritter, Charles Rosenberg, Peter Schwartz, Geert Somsen, Jeffrey Tang, Audra Wolfe, and an audience at the Joint Atlantic Seminar for the History of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, April 4, 1998.
2. "A biologist" quoted in Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1983), p. 149.
3. Last paragraph of press release announcing the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine from the webpage of the Nobel Foundation: http://www.nobel.se/laureates/medicine-1983-press.html, last updated July 23, 1997, accessed and printed December 15, 1997. See also: Les Prix Nobel 1983: Nobel Prizes, Presentations, Biographies and Lectures (Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1984).
4. Last paragraph of press release announcing the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine from the webpage of the Nobel Foundation: http://www.nobel.se/laureates/medicine-1983-press.html, last updated July 23, 1997, accessed and printed December 15, 1997. See also: Les Prix Nobel 1983: Nobel Prizes, Presentations, Biographies and Lectures (Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1984).
5. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
6. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
7. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
8. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
9. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
10. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
11. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
12. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
13. On the neglect or reputed neglect of Gregor Mendel: Augustine Brannigan. "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science, 9 (1979), 423-454. Augustine Brannigan and Richard A. Wanner, and James M. White, "The Phenomenon of Multiple Discoveries and the Re-publication of Mendel's Work in 1900," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 11 (1981), 263-276. Alain F. Corcos and Floyd V. Monaghan. "Was Nageli to Blame for Mendel's Choice to Work with Hawkweeds?" Michigan Academician: Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, 20 (1988), 221-223. Michael H. MacRoberts, "Was Mendel's Paper on 'Pisum' Neglected or Unknown?," Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 339-345. Robert C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). Hans-Jorg Rheinberger, "When Did Carl Correns Read Gregor Mendel's Paper? A Research Note," Isis, 86 (1995), 612-616. Jan Sapp, "The Nine Lives of Gregor Mendel," in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. Le Grand (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990), pp. 137-166. Federico Di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation," Journal of the History of Biology, 24 (1991), 485-519. Alexander Weinstein, "How Unknown Was Mendel's Paper?," Journal of the History of Biology, 10 (1977), 341-364.
14. See especially Nathaniel Comfort, "Breakage, Fusion, Bridge": The Discovery and Reception of Barbara McClintock's Controlling Elements (Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997).
15. Rediscovery as a concept has recently received some much-needed analysis. R.C. Olby, "Rediscovery as an Historical Concept," in New Trends in the History of Science, ed. R.P.W. Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 197-208. Andrew F. Huxley, "Discovery and Forgetting in Science," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 130 (1986), 475-481.
16. Rediscovery as a concept has recently received some much-needed analysis. R.C. Olby, "Rediscovery as an Historical Concept," in New Trends in the History of Science, ed. R.P.W. Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 197-208. Andrew F. Huxley, "Discovery and Forgetting in Science," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 130 (1986), 475-481.
17. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
18. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
19. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
20. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
21. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
22. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
23. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
24. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
25. See especially Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 153-195. On the career of Barbara McClintock, see also: Ana Barahona and Francisco J. Ayala. "La Importancia del Contexto y el Trabajo de Barbara McClintock," Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 598-99 (1995), 9-26. Nathaniel C. Comfort, "Two Genes, No Enzyme: A Second Look at Barbara McClintock and the 1951 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium," Genetics, 140 (1995), 1161-6. The Dynamic Genome: Barbara McClintock's Ideas in the Century of Genetics, ed. Nina Fedoroff and David Botstein (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1992). Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 115-26. Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1987). San MacColl, "Intimate Observation," Metascience: An International Review Journal for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science, 1 (1989), 90-98. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993). Jan Sapp presents an important parallel case for a mechanism of inheritance that was difficult to integrate into most contemporary genetic theory and practice and the importance of developmental biology in inspiring this line of work, Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
26. My concern here is with the communication, dissemination, and acceptance of McClintock's work in wider scientific communities, not the issue of discovery and its attendant questions of reason versus intuition at the level of the individual. Keller's discussion of McClintock's "different language" is quite thoughtful, and to the extent that she discusses communication with others, I find her account compelling. See esp. pp. 139-151. I do not take issue directly with Keller's feminist epistemology except to suggest that the differences between intuition, unarticulated reasoning, and experience (which may contain aspects of both) are difficult to document historically. My discussion of epistemology, standards of proof and argument is at the level of communication in the scientific community. There is a large philosophical literature on the subject of discovery, and interested readers are referred especially to the work of Kenneth F. Schaffner, Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also: Mirko D. Grmek, "A Plea for Freeing the History of Scientific Discoveries from Myth," in On Scientific Discovery: The Erice Lectures 1977, ed. Mirko Drazen Grmek, Robert S. Cohen, and Guido Cimino (Dordrecht, London, and Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1981), pp. 9-42. For a presentation of feminist epistemology of science, see Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton and London: Princeton University Press, 1990).
27. My concern here is with the communication, dissemination, and acceptance of McClintock's work in wider scientific communities, not the issue of discovery and its attendant questions of reason versus intuition at the level of the individual. Keller's discussion of McClintock's "different language" is quite thoughtful, and to the extent that she discusses communication with others, I find her account compelling. See esp. pp. 139-151. I do not take issue directly with Keller's feminist epistemology except to suggest that the differences between intuition, unarticulated reasoning, and experience (which may contain aspects of both) are difficult to document historically. My discussion of epistemology, standards of proof and argument is at the level of communication in the scientific community. There is a large philosophical literature on the subject of discovery, and interested readers are referred especially to the work of Kenneth F. Schaffner, Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also: Mirko D. Grmek, "A Plea for Freeing the History of Scientific Discoveries from Myth," in On Scientific Discovery: The Erice Lectures 1977, ed. Mirko Drazen Grmek, Robert S. Cohen, and Guido Cimino (Dordrecht, London, and Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1981), pp. 9-42. For a presentation of feminist epistemology of science, see Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton and London: Princeton University Press, 1990).
28. My concern here is with the communication, dissemination, and acceptance of McClintock's work in wider scientific communities, not the issue of discovery and its attendant questions of reason versus intuition at the level of the individual. Keller's discussion of McClintock's "different language" is quite thoughtful, and to the extent that she discusses communication with others, I find her account compelling. See esp. pp. 139-151. I do not take issue directly with Keller's feminist epistemology except to suggest that the differences between intuition, unarticulated reasoning, and experience (which may contain aspects of both) are difficult to document historically. My discussion of epistemology, standards of proof and argument is at the level of communication in the scientific community. There is a large philosophical literature on the subject of discovery, and interested readers are referred especially to the work of Kenneth F. Schaffner, Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also: Mirko D. Grmek, "A Plea for Freeing the History of Scientific Discoveries from Myth," in On Scientific Discovery: The Erice Lectures 1977, ed. Mirko Drazen Grmek, Robert S. Cohen, and Guido Cimino (Dordrecht, London, and Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1981), pp. 9-42. For a presentation of feminist epistemology of science, see Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton and London: Princeton University Press, 1990).
29. McClintock's published papers on transposition appear in: Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York: Garland Publishers, 1987). McClintock wrote a much fuller account, supported by extensive presentations of the data, which was never published. See McClintock Papers, Series III, Boxes 1 and 2. Comfort presents an account of the creation of these reports in Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, p. 201.
30. McClintock's published papers on transposition appear in: Barbara McClintock, The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock (New York: Garland Publishers, 1987). McClintock wrote a much fuller account, supported by extensive presentations of the data, which was never published. See McClintock Papers, Series III, Boxes 1 and 2. Comfort presents an account of the creation of these reports in Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, p. 201.
31. François Jacob and Jacques Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins," Journal of Molecular Biology, 3 (1961), 318-358.
32. On women scientists and the institutional problems they faced in building scientific careers see: Creative Couples in the Sciences, eds. Helena M. Pycior, Nancy G. Slack, and Pnina G. Abir-Am (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996). Maragaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979, eds. Pnina G. Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
33. On women scientists and the institutional problems they faced in building scientific careers see: Creative Couples in the Sciences, eds. Helena M. Pycior, Nancy G. Slack, and Pnina G. Abir-Am (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996). Maragaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979, eds. Pnina G. Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
34. On women scientists and the institutional problems they faced in building scientific careers see: Creative Couples in the Sciences, eds. Helena M. Pycior, Nancy G. Slack, and Pnina G. Abir-Am (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996). Maragaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979, eds. Pnina G. Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
35. On women scientists and the institutional problems they faced in building scientific careers see: Creative Couples in the Sciences, eds. Helena M. Pycior, Nancy G. Slack, and Pnina G. Abir-Am (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996). Maragaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979, eds. Pnina G. Abir-Am and Dorinda Outram (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
36. Nathaniel Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 69-172.
37. This work is discussed in detail in Keller, A Feeling for the Organism; Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science; Comfort, "Two genes, no enzyme"; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge. The relevant papers were reprinted together McClintock, Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements.
38. This work is discussed in detail in Keller, A Feeling for the Organism; Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science; Comfort, "Two genes, no enzyme"; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge. The relevant papers were reprinted together McClintock, Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements.
39. This work is discussed in detail in Keller, A Feeling for the Organism; Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science; Comfort, "Two genes, no enzyme"; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge. The relevant papers were reprinted together McClintock, Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements.
40. This work is discussed in detail in Keller, A Feeling for the Organism; Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science; Comfort, "Two genes, no enzyme"; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge. The relevant papers were reprinted together McClintock, Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements.
41. This work is discussed in detail in Keller, A Feeling for the Organism; Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science; Comfort, "Two genes, no enzyme"; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge. The relevant papers were reprinted together McClintock, Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements.
42. A plasmid is a small piece of DNA present in a cell separate from its chromosome or chromosomes. Plasmids replicate independently of the chromosome and can be passed from one species of bacteria to another.
43. For an example of the meanings and usages that have come to be associated with it, see: Douglas E. Berg, and Martha M. Howe, eds., Mobile DNA (Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1989).
44. Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 230-289.
45. McClintock to Caspari, Caspari Papers, September 27, 1972.
46. I use epistemology here as an actors' category, following what McClintock and the scientists with whom she was working felt could be extrapolated from what kind of evidence rather than an external philosophical standard of proof. In that sense, my work falls into the tradition of "epistemic sociology" rather than philosophical epistemology.
47. Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 230-289.
48. Jan Sapp, Beyond the Gene. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life: Metaphors of Twentieth-Century Biology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 1-42.
49. Jan Sapp, Beyond the Gene. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life: Metaphors of Twentieth-Century Biology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), esp. pp. 1-42.
50. Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 118-72.
51. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
52. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
53. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
54. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
55. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
56. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
57. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses
58. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
59. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
60. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
61. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
62. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
63. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
64. On the history of embryology and development, see: Alice Levine Baxter, Edmund Beecher Wilson and the Problem of Development: From the Germ Layer Theory to the Chromosome Theory of Inheritance (Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, 1974). Philippe Caspar, Penser l'Embryon, d'Hippocrate à Nos Jours (Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1991). A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991). A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, ed. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as a Feminist Cause?" Osiris: Second Series, 12 (1997), 16-28. Histoire du Concept de Récapitulation: Ontogenèse et Phylogenèse en Biologie et Sciences Humaines, ed. Paul Mengal (Paris: Masson, 1993). John A. Moore, "Science as a Way of Knowing: Developmental Biology," American Zoologist, 27 (1987), 415-573. Alain Prochiantz, Les Stratégies de l'Embryon: Embryons, Gènes, Évolution (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1988). On the creation of "developmental genetics": Garland E. Allen, "T. H. Morgan and the Split Between Embryology and Genetics, 1910-35," in A History of Embryology: The Eighth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology, eds. T. J. Horder, J. A. Witkowski, C. C. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 113-46. Richard M. Burian, Jean Gayon, and Doris Zallen, "Boris Ephrussi and the Synthesis of Genetics and Embryology," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 207-227. Scott F. Gilbert, "Cellular Politics: Ernest Everett Just, Richard B. Goldschmidt, and the Attempt to Reconcile Embryology and Genetics," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 311-46. Scott F. Gilbert, "Induction and the Origins of Developmental Genetics," in A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), pp. 181-205. Evelyn Fox Keller, "Language and Science: Genetics, Embryology, and the Discourse of Gene Action," Great Ideas Today (1994), 2-29. Evelyn Fox Keller, Refiguring Life.
65. On the Morgan group's linkage of cytology and breeding experiments, see: Garland E. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. pp. 53-90. On McClintock's parallel work, see: Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 39-61; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 70-78.
66. On the Morgan group's linkage of cytology and breeding experiments, see: Garland E. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. pp. 53-90. On McClintock's parallel work, see: Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 39-61; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 70-78.
67. On the Morgan group's linkage of cytology and breeding experiments, see: Garland E. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. pp. 53-90. On McClintock's parallel work, see: Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 39-61; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 70-78.
68. On the Morgan group's linkage of cytology and breeding experiments, see: Garland E. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. pp. 53-90. On McClintock's parallel work, see: Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, pp. 39-61; Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge, pp. 70-78.
69. Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, p. 149.
70. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
71. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
72. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
73. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
74. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
75. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
76. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
77. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
78. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
79. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
80. A history of cytogenetic practice, particularly one focused on the experimental techniques and visual representation of results, would be necessary to answer definitively the question of how much of McClintock's technique and visual practice is idiosyncratic and how much is part of a shared culture. Unfortunately, such a history has not yet been written. The history of cytology, though, is relevant. See: Augustín Albarracín Teulón, La Teoria Celular: Historia de un Paradigma (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1983). John Randal Baker, "The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique." Quarterly Review of Microscopical Science. Part I, 89 (1949), 103-125; Part II, 90 (1949), 87-108; Part III, 93 (1952), 157-190; Part IV, 94 (1953), 407-440; Part V, 96 (1955), 449-481 [republished as: John Randal Baker, The Cell Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique (New York: Garland, 1988)]. William Coleman, "Cell, Nucleus and Inheritance: An Historical Study," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (1965), 124-158. François Duchesneau, Genèse de la Théorie Cellulaire (Montreal: Bellarmin; Paris: Vrin, 1987). Arthur Frederick William Hughes, A History of Cytology (London; New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959). Marc Klein, A la Recherche de l'Unité Élémentaire des Organismes Vivants; Histoire de la Théorie Cellulaire (Paris: Librairie du Palais de la Decouverte, 1960).
81. On the history of microscopy and microtechnique: Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). Gerard L'E. Turner, "'Some Curious Old Instruments': The Assembly of the Royal Microscopical Society's Collection of Microscopes," Journal of the History of Collections, 1 (1989), 149-166. Royal Microscopical Society (Great Britain), The Great Age of the Microscope: The Collection of the Royal Microscopical Society through 150 Years (Bristol, England and Philadelphia, Hilger, 1989).
82. On the history of microscopy and microtechnique: Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). Gerard L'E. Turner, "'Some Curious Old Instruments': The Assembly of the Royal Microscopical Society's Collection of Microscopes," Journal of the History of Collections, 1 (1989), 149-166. Royal Microscopical Society (Great Britain), The Great Age of the Microscope: The Collection of the Royal Microscopical Society through 150 Years (Bristol, England and Philadelphia, Hilger, 1989).
83. On the history of microscopy and microtechnique: Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). Gerard L'E. Turner, "'Some Curious Old Instruments': The Assembly of the Royal Microscopical Society's Collection of Microscopes," Journal of the History of Collections, 1 (1989), 149-166. Royal Microscopical Society (Great Britain), The Great Age of the Microscope: The Collection of the Royal Microscopical Society through 150 Years (Bristol, England and Philadelphia, Hilger, 1989).
84. See: Anthony S. Travis, The Rainbow Makers: The Origins of the Synthetic Dyestuffs Industry in Western Europe (Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press; London: Associated University Presses, 1993).
85. For details of Drosophila and salivary chromosome preparations, see Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, 154-213; and Kohler, Lords of the Fly, 53-90. For George Beadle's experience with Neurospora cytogenetics and McClintock's role in it, see Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, 113-118.
86. For details of Drosophila and salivary chromosome preparations, see Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, 154-213; and Kohler, Lords of the Fly, 53-90. For George Beadle's experience with Neurospora cytogenetics and McClintock's role in it, see Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, 113-118.
87. For details of Drosophila and salivary chromosome preparations, see Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, 154-213; and Kohler, Lords of the Fly, 53-90. For George Beadle's experience with Neurospora cytogenetics and McClintock's role in it, see Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, 113-118.
88. Thomas Hunt Morgan, The Physical Basis of Heredity (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1920).
89. Harriet B. Creighton and Barbara McClintock, "A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea mays," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 17 (1931), 492-427.
90. Barbara McClintock, "Chromosome Organization and Genic Expression," Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology, 16 (1951), 13-47, 18.
91. Though Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, and Kohler, Lords of the Fly, present the origins of this experimental practice and its visual representation, a systematic study of its dissemination remains to be done.
92. Ibid., 22.
93. For the development of chromosome mapping in Thomas Hunt Morgan's laboratory, see Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
94. The trait whose expression was affected was not important except that it had to be visible to McClintock on analysis. The first transposons McClintock identified changed the expression of pigment genes, and led to the spotted and speckled kernels she went on to analyze. Figure 4 shows a change in carbohydrate metabolism in which starch becomes visible when the kernel is stained with iodine. This image was published twice: Barbara McClintock, "The Control of Gene Action in Maize," 167; and Barbara McClintock, "Development of the Maize Endosperm as Revealed by Clones," in The Clonal Basis of Development, 36th Symposium of the Society for Developmental Biology (June 1977) (New York: Academic Press, 1978), pp. 217-237, 229.
95. The trait whose expression was affected was not important except that it had to be visible to McClintock on analysis. The first transposons McClintock identified changed the expression of pigment genes, and led to the spotted and speckled kernels she went on to analyze. Figure 4 shows a change in carbohydrate metabolism in which starch becomes visible when the kernel is stained with iodine. This image was published twice: Barbara McClintock, "The Control of Gene Action in Maize," 167; and Barbara McClintock, "Development of the Maize Endosperm as Revealed by Clones," in The Clonal Basis of Development, 36th Symposium of the Society for Developmental Biology (June 1977) (New York: Academic Press, 1978), pp. 217-237, 229.
96. Barbara McClintock, "The Control of Gene Action in Maize," p. 167.
97. McClintock, "Development of the Maize Endosperm as Revealed by Clones," p. 229.
98. Ibid., p. 233.
99. Ibid., p. 234.
100. Ibid., p. 225.
101. For a discussion of three-dimensional molecular models made of wood, plastic, and metal that became a hallmark of molecular biology, see: Eric Francoeur, "The Forgotten Tool: The Design and Use of Molecular Models," Social Studies of Science, 27 (1997), 7-40.
102. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
103. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
104. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
105. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
106. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
107. The history of molecular biology cannot be adequately summarized here, but see, eg.: Pnina G. Abir-Am, "The Politics of Macromolecules: Molecular Biologists, Biochemists, and Rhetoric," Osiris: Second Series, 7 (1992), 164-191. Soraya De Chadarevian and Jean-Paul Gaudilliere, "The Tools of the Discipline: Biochemists and Molecular Biologists [Introduction to a special issue on this topic]," Journal of the History of Biology, 29 (1996), 327-330. Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life. Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science. Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix.
108. This observation, and a great many other thoughtful analyses of scale, method, and epistemology appear in Nicolas Rasmussen, Picture Control: The Electron Microscope and the Transformation of Biology in America, 1940-1960 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).
109. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
110. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
111. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
112. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
113. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
114. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Based on Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Institute at Trinity College, Dublin, In February 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944). Gunther Stent argues that the core of this group was Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria, and Max Delbrück. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology, ed. John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and James D. Watson (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring H arbor Laboratory, 1966), p. 5. See also William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. See also: Evelyn Fox Keller, "Physics and the Emergence of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 23 (1990), 389-409. Approaching from a different angle, protein chemist Linus Pauling would also have to be included in the founding generation, along with a number of X-ray crystallographers working on biologically-active molecules. On Pauling, see: Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). Ted and Ben Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
115. The Pauling Symposium: A Discourse on the An of Biography. Proceedings of the conference on the life and work of Linus Pauling (1901-1994): February 28-March 2, 1995, Corvallis, Oregon, ed. Ramesh S. Krishnamurthy, Clifford S. Mead, Mary Jo Nye (Corvalis: Oregon State University Libraries, 1996). Anthony Serafini, Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science (New York: Paragon House, 1989).
116. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
117. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
118. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora"
119. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
120. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
121. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
122. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
123. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
124. The basic outline of these discoveries is covered in: Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974). Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundation Managers and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996). The locus classicus for each is: George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum, "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 27 (1941), 494-506. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Transformation of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79 (1944), 137-158. James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," Nature, 171 (1953), 737-738. Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary L. Stephenson, J.F. Scott, Lise I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnik, "A Soluble Ribonucleic Acid Intermediate in Protein Synthesis," Journal of Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958): 241-57. Jacob and Monod, "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins."
125. Marshall Nirenberg published a series of reports on the code from 1961-65 before presenting the entire table matching each three-base codon to a single amino acid or start/stop signal. See The Genetic Code. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium in Quantitative Biology, 31 (1967).
126. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
127. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
128. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
129. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
130. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
131. On the development of biotechnology and recombinant DNA in the 1960s and 1970s, see: Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Donald A. Chambers, ed., DNA: The Double Helix: Perspective and Prospective at Forty Years (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1995). Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). Arnold Thackray, ed., Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). Susan Wright, Molecular Politics: Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic Engineering, 1972-1982 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
132. Barbara McClintock, "The Control of Gene Action in Maize," Brookhaven Symposia in Biology, 18 (1965), 162-84, 183.
133. On models in physics, see: Peter L. Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Lily E. Kay, "Conceptual Models and Analytical Tools: The Biology of Physicist Max Delbrück," Journal of the History of Biology, 18 (1985), 207-246. Eric Francoeur, "The Forgotten Tool."
134. On models in physics, see: Peter L. Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Lily E. Kay, "Conceptual Models and Analytical Tools: The Biology of Physicist Max Delbrück," Journal of the History of Biology, 18 (1985), 207-246. Eric Francoeur, "The Forgotten Tool."
135. On models in physics, see: Peter L. Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Lily E. Kay, "Conceptual Models and Analytical Tools: The Biology of Physicist Max Delbrück," Journal of the History of Biology, 18 (1985), 207-246. Eric Francoeur, "The Forgotten Tool."
136. Alan J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984). Mary Jo Nye, "Explanation and Convention in 19th-century Chemistry," New Trends in the History of Science: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Utrecht, eds. R.P.W Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 171-186. Seymour H. Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Ccomposition in 19th-century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. [Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 66, pt. 3.]) Elizabeth Garber, "Molecular Science in late 19th-century Britain," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 9 (1978), 265-297.
137. Alan J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984). Mary Jo Nye, "Explanation and Convention in 19th-century Chemistry," New Trends in the History of Science: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Utrecht, eds. R.P.W Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 171-186. Seymour H. Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Ccomposition in 19th-century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. [Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 66, pt. 3.]) Elizabeth Garber, "Molecular Science in late 19th-century Britain," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 9 (1978), 265-297.
138. Alan J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984). Mary Jo Nye, "Explanation and Convention in 19th-century Chemistry," New Trends in the History of Science: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Utrecht, eds. R.P.W Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 171-186. Seymour H. Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Ccomposition in 19th-century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. [Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 66, pt. 3.]) Elizabeth Garber, "Molecular Science in late 19th-century Britain," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 9 (1978), 265-297.
139. Alan J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984). Mary Jo Nye, "Explanation and Convention in 19th-century Chemistry," New Trends in the History of Science: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Utrecht, eds. R.P.W Visser, H.J.M. Bos, L.C. Palm and H.A.M. Snelders (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 171-186. Seymour H. Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Ccomposition in 19th-century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. [Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 66, pt. 3.]) Elizabeth Garber, "Molecular Science in late 19th-century Britain," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 9 (1978), 265-297.
140. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century, especially Ch. 9 on valence and structure, pp. 251-286.
141. Peter Achinstein, "Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality," Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social, 2 (1994), 396-427. David Fenby, "Einstein and Molecular Reality," Chemistry in Britain, 17 (1981), 114-118. Milton Kerker, "The Svedberg and Molecular Reality," Isis, 67 (1976), 190-216. Leo Slater, Organic Synthesis and R.B. Woodward: An Historical Study in the Chemical Sciences (Ph.D. Dissertation at Princeton University, 1997).
142. Peter Achinstein, "Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality," Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social, 2 (1994), 396-427. David Fenby, "Einstein and Molecular Reality," Chemistry in Britain, 17 (1981), 114-118. Milton Kerker, "The Svedberg and Molecular Reality," Isis, 67 (1976), 190-216. Leo Slater, Organic Synthesis and R.B. Woodward: An Historical Study in the Chemical Sciences (Ph.D. Dissertation at Princeton University, 1997).
143. Peter Achinstein, "Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality," Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social, 2 (1994), 396-427. David Fenby, "Einstein and Molecular Reality," Chemistry in Britain, 17 (1981), 114-118. Milton Kerker, "The Svedberg and Molecular Reality," Isis, 67 (1976), 190-216. Leo Slater, Organic Synthesis and R.B. Woodward: An Historical Study in the Chemical Sciences (Ph.D. Dissertation at Princeton University, 1997).
144. Peter Achinstein, "Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality," Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social, 2 (1994), 396-427. David Fenby, "Einstein and Molecular Reality," Chemistry in Britain, 17 (1981), 114-118. Milton Kerker, "The Svedberg and Molecular Reality," Isis, 67 (1976), 190-216. Leo Slater, Organic Synthesis and R.B. Woodward: An Historical Study in the Chemical Sciences (Ph.D. Dissertation at Princeton University, 1997).
145. Controversy in the history of chemistry over the exact dates and terms of the "molecular reality" debate does not weaken the basic claim that the epistemological status of these models was in question in the chemical community for decades.
146. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
147. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
148. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
149. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
150. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
151. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
152. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
153. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
154. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
155. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
156. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
157. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in
158. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
159. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
160. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
161. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
162. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
163. For an analysis of the relationship between diagrams and photographs in scientific arguments, see: Michael Lynch, "Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations between Diagrams and Photographs," Biology and Philosophy, 6 (1991), 205-226. For a discussion of the philosophy of photography that discusses some of the issues in documentary versus illustrative uses of photographs see: Nigel Warburton, "Varieties of Photographic Representation: Documentary, Pictorial and Quasi-documentary," History of Photography, 15 (1991), 203-10. For analyses that find an increasing schematization of images in scientific discourse, see: Ann Shelby Blum, Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993). Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Representation in Scientific Practice, eds. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 153-82. For a sociological analysis of the use of diagrams in contemporary research and teaching in bioenergetics, see: G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociologial Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), especially Ch. 7, "Working conceptual hallucinations," pp. 141-171. See also: Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 40 (1992), 81-128. John Galloway, "Seeing the Invisible: Photography in Science," Impact of Science on Society, 42 (1992), 329-43. James R. Griesemer and William C. Wimsatt, "Picturing Weismannism: A Case Study of Conceptual Evolution," in What the Philosophy of Biology is: Essays Dedicated to David Hull, ed. Michael Ruse (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1989), pp. 75-137. John Lankford, "The Impact of Photography on Astronomy," in Astrophysics and Twentieth-Century Astronomy to 1950: Part A, ed. Owen Gingerich (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16-39. H.E. LeGrand, "Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Experiments?" in Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science, ed. H.E. LeGrand (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), pp. 241-70. Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science, 15 (1985), 37-66. Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wilson's The Cell," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 227-54. Robert J. O'Hara, "Representations of the Natural System in the Nineteenth Century," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 255-74. Picturing Knowledge: Historical and Philosophical Problems Concerning the Use of Art in Science, ed. Brian S. Baigrie (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1996). Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, eds., Gordon Fyfe and John Law (Routledge: London and New York, 1988). Rasmussen, Picture Control. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time: Early Pictorial Representations of the Prehistoric World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Peter J. Taylor and Ann S. Blum, "Pictorial Representation in Biology," Biology & Philosophy, 6 (1991), 125-34.
164. In Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, p. xv. For other perspectives on miscommunication, see: "In this sense, McClintock's presentation in 1951 was well timed, and, had less been packed into the brief time available, or had her presentation been more clearly articulated, it might well have succeeded in capturing her audience's imagination." Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, p. 157. "There was Barbara McClintock, a tiny but formidable scientist, speaking as fast as anyone I knew and packing years of work into a one-hour lecture. Her discoveries in maize genetics had to wait decades before being appreciated as opening new paths in biology." Salvador Luria, A Slot Machine, A Broken Test Tube: An Autobiography (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1984), p. 34.
165. See, for example: Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide: Adrianus Pijper and the Debate over Bacterial Flagella, 1946-1956," Isis, 87 (1996), 274-305. More symbolic work by artists in the early twentieth century attempting to illustrate the fourth dimension (whether construed in space or time) is fascinating, but the semiotics of that community were difficult to translate into the realistic images demanded by scientific communities. On symbolic renderings of a temporal fourth dimension in two-dimensional art see: George Kluber, La Configuracion del Tiempo: Observaciones Sobre la Historia de las Cosas (Madrid: Nerea, 1988). M. Baudson, L'Art et le Temps: Regards sur la Quatrieme Dimension (Paris: A. Michel, 1985). J. Mcclain, "Time in the Visual Arts: Lessing and Modern Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and An Criticism Baltimore, 44 (1985-1986), 41-58.
166. See, for example: Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide: Adrianus Pijper and the Debate over Bacterial Flagella, 1946-1956," Isis, 87 (1996), 274-305. More symbolic work by artists in the early twentieth century attempting to illustrate the fourth dimension (whether construed in space or time) is fascinating, but the semiotics of that community were difficult to translate into the realistic images demanded by scientific communities. On symbolic renderings of a temporal fourth dimension in two-dimensional art see: George Kluber, La Configuracion del Tiempo: Observaciones Sobre la Historia de las Cosas (Madrid: Nerea, 1988). M. Baudson, L'Art et le Temps: Regards sur la Quatrieme Dimension (Paris: A. Michel, 1985). J. Mcclain, "Time in the Visual Arts: Lessing and Modern Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and An Criticism Baltimore, 44 (1985-1986), 41-58.
167. See, for example: Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide: Adrianus Pijper and the Debate over Bacterial Flagella, 1946-1956," Isis, 87 (1996), 274-305. More symbolic work by artists in the early twentieth century attempting to illustrate the fourth dimension (whether construed in space or time) is fascinating, but the semiotics of that community were difficult to translate into the realistic images demanded by scientific communities. On symbolic renderings of a temporal fourth dimension in two-dimensional art see: George Kluber, La Configuracion del Tiempo: Observaciones Sobre la Historia de las Cosas (Madrid: Nerea, 1988). M. Baudson, L'Art et le Temps: Regards sur la Quatrieme Dimension (Paris: A. Michel, 1985). J. Mcclain, "Time in the Visual Arts: Lessing and Modern Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and An Criticism Baltimore, 44 (1985-1986), 41-58.
168. See, for example: Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide: Adrianus Pijper and the Debate over Bacterial Flagella, 1946-1956," Isis, 87 (1996), 274-305. More symbolic work by artists in the early twentieth century attempting to illustrate the fourth dimension (whether construed in space or time) is fascinating, but the semiotics of that community were difficult to translate into the realistic images demanded by scientific communities. On symbolic renderings of a temporal fourth dimension in two-dimensional art see: George Kluber, La Configuracion del Tiempo: Observaciones Sobre la Historia de las Cosas (Madrid: Nerea, 1988). M. Baudson, L'Art et le Temps: Regards sur la Quatrieme Dimension (Paris: A. Michel, 1985). J. Mcclain, "Time in the Visual Arts: Lessing and Modern Criticism," Journal of Aesthetics and An Criticism Baltimore, 44 (1985-1986), 41-58.
169. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
170. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
171. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
172. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
173. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
174. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
175. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
176. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
177. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
178. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
179. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
180. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
181. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a
182. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
183. Marta Braun, Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Mary Ann Doane, "Temporality, Storage, Legibility: Freud, Marey, and the Cinema," Critical Inquiry, 22(2, winter 1996), pp. 313-343. L. J. Ramsey, "Early Cineradiography and Cineflurorgraphy," History of Photography, 7 (1983), 311-322. James Strick, "Swimming Against the Tide." For other analyses of the role of experimental organisms in shaping research programs, see: Richard M. Burian, "How the Choice of Experimental Organism Matters: Epistemological Reflections on an Aspect of Biological Practice," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 351-67. On the choice of experimental organism and its consequences for biological research: Bonnie Tocher Clause, "The Wistar Rat as a Right Choice: Establishing Mammalian Standards and the Ideal of a Standardized Mammal," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 329-49. Frederic L. Holmes, "The Old Martyr of Science: The Frog in Experimental Physiology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 311-28. Barbara A. Kimmelman, "Organisms and Interests In Scientific Research: R. A. Emerson's Claims for the Unique Contributions of Agricultural Genetics," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 198-232. Robert E. Kohler, "Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 281-310. Muriel Lederman and Richard M. Burian, "Introduction [issue on the 'Right Organism for the Job']," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 235-237. Muriel Lederman and Sue A. Tolin, "OVATOOMB: Other Viruses and the Origins of Molecular Biology," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 239-54. Gregg Mitman and Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Whatever Happened to Planaria? C.M. Child and the Physiology of Inheritance," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in 20th-century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 172-97. Karen A. Rader, Making Mice: C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory, and the Standardization of "Mus musculus" for Research (Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University, 1995). William C. Summers, "How Bacteriophage Came to Be Used by the Phage Group," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 255-67. Doris T. Zallen, "The 'Light' Organism for the Job: Green Algae and Photosynthesis Research," Journal of the History of Biology, 26 (1993), 269-79.
184. Royal A. Brink and Robert A. Nilan, "The Relation between Light Variegated and Medium Variegated Pericarp in Maize," Genetics, 37 (1952), 519-44. P.C. Barclay and R.A. Brink, "The Relation Between Modulator and Activator in Maize," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 40 (1954), 1118-1126. Peter Peterson, "A Mutable Pale Green Locus in Maize," Genetics, 38 (1953), 682-683. Peter Peterson, "The Pale Green Mutable System in Maize," Genetics, 45 (1960), 115-32.
185. Royal A. Brink and Robert A. Nilan, "The Relation between Light Variegated and Medium Variegated Pericarp in Maize," Genetics, 37 (1952), 519-44. P.C. Barclay and R.A. Brink, "The Relation Between Modulator and Activator in Maize," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 40 (1954), 1118-1126. Peter Peterson, "A Mutable Pale Green Locus in Maize," Genetics, 38 (1953), 682-683. Peter Peterson, "The Pale Green Mutable System in Maize," Genetics, 45 (1960), 115-32.
186. Royal A. Brink and Robert A. Nilan, "The Relation between Light Variegated and Medium Variegated Pericarp in Maize," Genetics, 37 (1952), 519-44. P.C. Barclay and R.A. Brink, "The Relation Between Modulator and Activator in Maize," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 40 (1954), 1118-1126. Peter Peterson, "A Mutable Pale Green Locus in Maize," Genetics, 38 (1953), 682-683. Peter Peterson, "The Pale Green Mutable System in Maize," Genetics, 45 (1960), 115-32.
187. Royal A. Brink and Robert A. Nilan, "The Relation between Light Variegated and Medium Variegated Pericarp in Maize," Genetics, 37 (1952), 519-44. P.C. Barclay and R.A. Brink, "The Relation Between Modulator and Activator in Maize," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 40 (1954), 1118-1126. Peter Peterson, "A Mutable Pale Green Locus in Maize," Genetics, 38 (1953), 682-683. Peter Peterson, "The Pale Green Mutable System in Maize," Genetics, 45 (1960), 115-32.
188. James D. Watson, Molecular Biology of the Gene (New York: W. A. Benjamin, 1965).
189. M.G. Neuffer to McClintock, April 15, 1965, McClintock Papers, Series I, Box 4, Folder Neuffer, M.G.
190. Barbara McClintock, "Some Parallels Between Gene Control Systems in Maize and in Bacteria," American Naturalist, 95 (1961), 265-77.
191. Caspari to McClintock, Ernst Wolfgang Caspari Papers, APS Manuscript Collection #1, Folder: McClintock, Barbara (hereafter Caspari Papers), April 14, 1973.
192. Barbara McClintock, "Some parallels between gene control systems in maize and in bacteria." In the Caspari Papers: McClintock to Caspari, April 5, 1956; McClintock to Caspari, September 27, 1972; Caspari to McClintock, April 14, 1973; McClintock to Caspari, May 19, 1973.
193. McClintock to Caspari, Caspari Papers, September 27, 1972.
194. J.R.S. Fincham to McClintock, August 7, 1973, McClintock Papers, Series I, Box 2, Folder: Fincham, J.R.S.
195. See, eg: Barbara McClintock, "Some Parallels Between Gene Control Systems in Maize and in Bacteria," McClintock also gave over 80 lectures on aspects of control in genetic systems - lecture outlines and slide lists are held in the McClintock Papers, Series III, and lantern slides in Series V.
196. See, eg.: Nina V. Fedoroff, "About Maize Transposable Elements and Development," Cell, 56 (1989), 181-91. Nina V. Fedoroff, "DNA Methylation and Activity of the Maize Spm Transposable Element," Current Topics in Microbiology & Immunology, 197 (1995), 143-64. R. F. Pohlman, Nina V. Fedoroff, and J. Messing, "The Nucleotide Sequence of the Maize Controlling Element Activator," Cell, 37 (1984), 635-43.
197. See, eg.: Nina V. Fedoroff, "About Maize Transposable Elements and Development," Cell, 56 (1989), 181-91. Nina V. Fedoroff, "DNA Methylation and Activity of the Maize Spm Transposable Element," Current Topics in Microbiology & Immunology, 197 (1995), 143-64. R. F. Pohlman, Nina V. Fedoroff, and J. Messing, "The Nucleotide Sequence of the Maize Controlling Element Activator," Cell, 37 (1984), 635-43.
198. See, eg.: Nina V. Fedoroff, "About Maize Transposable Elements and Development," Cell, 56 (1989), 181-91. Nina V. Fedoroff, "DNA Methylation and Activity of the Maize Spm Transposable Element," Current Topics in Microbiology & Immunology, 197 (1995), 143-64. R. F. Pohlman, Nina V. Fedoroff, and J. Messing, "The Nucleotide Sequence of the Maize Controlling Element Activator," Cell, 37 (1984), 635-43.
199. One place she made the remark about the operon not explaining everything is in the Transcript of interview with Barbara McClintock August 21, 1980 by Dr. Franklin H. Portugal, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. (hereafter APS), Recording #230, p. 3.
200. For an interesting argument about whether the most "fundamental" level is the gene or the phenotype, see: Ernst Mayr, "Cause and Effect in Biology," Science, 134 (1961), 1501-1506.
201. Interview of Barbara McClintock by Dr. Franklin H. Portugal, August 21, 1980, p. 4.
202. Transcript of interview of Barbara McClintock, August 21, 1980 by Dr. Franklin H. Portugal, p. 3. Keller describes McClintock's concern with the tendency of scientists to see their models as reality, explaining that "That's why models, when they first begin to be promulgated, are so bothersome to me." Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, p. 174. Georges Cuvier was similarly concerned with contaminating his drawings and reconstructions with unproven hypotheses, refusing to permit drawings that he considered too "speculative" to appear in his publications. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time, pp. 36-7.
203. Transcript of interview of Barbara McClintock, August 21, 1980 by Dr. Franklin H. Portugal, p. 3. Keller describes McClintock's concern with the tendency of scientists to see their models as reality, explaining that "That's why models, when they first begin to be promulgated, are so bothersome to me." Keller, A Feeling for the Organism, p. 174. Georges Cuvier was similarly concerned with contaminating his drawings and reconstructions with unproven hypotheses, refusing to permit drawings that he considered too "speculative" to appear in his publications. Martin J.S. Rudwick, Scenes from Deep Time, pp. 36-7.
204. Alan G. Gross, The Rhetoric of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990). Frederic L. Holmes, "Argument and Narrative in Scientific Writing," in The Literary Structure of Scientific Argument, ed. Peter Dear (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), pp. 164-181.
205. Alan G. Gross, The Rhetoric of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990). Frederic L. Holmes, "Argument and Narrative in Scientific Writing," in The Literary Structure of Scientific Argument, ed. Peter Dear (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), pp. 164-181.
206. Recent work on museums for science, medicine, and natural history develops some of the themes of non-verbal communication and illustration of biological materials: Non-Verbal Communication in Science Prior to 1900, ed. Renato G. Mazzolini (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 1993), pp. 449-478. Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Museums on Campus: A Tradition of Inquiry and Teaching," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 15-47.
207. Recent work on museums for science, medicine, and natural history develops some of the themes of non-verbal communication and illustration of biological materials: Non-Verbal Communication in Science Prior to 1900, ed. Renato G. Mazzolini (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 1993), pp. 449-478. Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, "Museums on Campus: A Tradition of Inquiry and Teaching," in The American Development of Biology, ed. Ronald Rainger, Keith R. Benson, and Jane Maienschein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), pp. 15-47.
208. William Mills Ivins, Prints and Visual Communication (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953).
209. The genre of advice manuals on illustration for young scientists helps to suggest both what is normative and to present prescriptive advice from illustrators and others who take illustration seriously. For example: Mary Helen Briscoe, A Researcher's Guide to Scientific and Medical Illustrations (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990).
210. For the theoretical issues, see: Nathaniel Comfort, Breakage, Fusion, Bridge; Fedoroff and Botstein, eds., Dynamic Genome; and Lee Kass's ongoing work on McClintock.
211. Fedoroff and Botstein, The Dynamic Genome, contains a selection of accounts by scientists who say they believed her but didn't understand her.
212. A search of Medline (1966-75) lists 80 articles on plasmids and drug resistance by 1975, covering a variety of antibiotics and including the frightening prospect of interspecies transmission of multiple drug resistance genes on a single plasmid.