The forgotten tool: The design and use of molecular models

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 7-40

  Francoeur, Eric ^a,b,c,d  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^d NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031505328     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631297027001002     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Although an in-depth analysis of the iconographic style of these pictures is not the objective of this paper, a few remarks seem to be in order. As pointed out, for instance, by Michael Lynch (personal communication), parallels can be drawn between these and other forms of portraiture. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger draws attention to the 'analogy between possessing and the way of seeing which is incorporated in oil painting', and illustrates this analogy with a classical portrait of art lovers surrounded by the paintings they own. At play is a double-possession; the possession of the paintings as objects, and the possession of the objects in these paintings. This double-possession is also present in Figure 1, showing the chemist surrounded by models - objects which he owns (or rather masters), thus evoking the chemist's mastery of the molecular realm. One is also reminded here of Holbein's famous 1533 painting, The Ambassadors, showing two men in rich surroundings, standing on opposite sides of shelves filled with scientific instruments, mainly instruments of navigation. Similarly, the objects in Figure 3 could be considered instruments of navigation, of exploration, with the notable exception that they are designed to exploit the riches of a microscopic universe, not of far-away lands: see John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: British Broadcasting Corporation & Penguin Books, 1972), 83ff. Figure 2 brings to mind the 'Great White Hunter' of colonial times, a pose endlessly replicated in popular fishing and hunting magazines and in the snapshots of weekend anglers and hunters. This similarity is emphasized by the relaxed pose of Linus Pauling, leaning slightly towards his 'trophy', his facial expression reflecting a mix of mild pride and contentment. For a discussion of the portrayal of scientists with their instruments, see Gregg DeYoung, 'Postage Stamps and the Popular Iconography of Science', Journal of American Culture, Vol. 9 (1986), 1-13.
2. Although an in-depth analysis of the iconographic style of these pictures is not the objective of this paper, a few remarks seem to be in order. As pointed out, for instance, by Michael Lynch (personal communication), parallels can be drawn between these and other forms of portraiture. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger draws attention to the 'analogy between possessing and the way of seeing which is incorporated in oil painting', and illustrates this analogy with a classical portrait of art lovers surrounded by the paintings they own. At play is a double-possession; the possession of the paintings as objects, and the possession of the objects in these paintings. This double-possession is also present in Figure 1, showing the chemist surrounded by models - objects which he owns (or rather masters), thus evoking the chemist's mastery of the molecular realm. One is also reminded here of Holbein's famous 1533 painting, The Ambassadors, showing two men in rich surroundings, standing on opposite sides of shelves filled with scientific instruments, mainly instruments of navigation. Similarly, the objects in Figure 3 could be considered instruments of navigation, of exploration, with the notable exception that they are designed to exploit the riches of a microscopic universe, not of far-away lands: see John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: British Broadcasting Corporation & Penguin Books, 1972), 83ff. Figure 2 brings to mind the 'Great White Hunter' of colonial times, a pose endlessly replicated in popular fishing and hunting magazines and in the snapshots of weekend anglers and hunters. This similarity is emphasized by the relaxed pose of Linus Pauling, leaning slightly towards his 'trophy', his facial expression reflecting a mix of mild pride and contentment. For a discussion of the portrayal of scientists with their instruments, see Gregg DeYoung, 'Postage Stamps and the Popular Iconography of Science', Journal of American Culture, Vol. 9 (1986), 1-13.
3. Although an in-depth analysis of the iconographic style of these pictures is not the objective of this paper, a few remarks seem to be in order. As pointed out, for instance, by Michael Lynch (personal communication), parallels can be drawn between these and other forms of portraiture. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger draws attention to the 'analogy between possessing and the way of seeing which is incorporated in oil painting', and illustrates this analogy with a classical portrait of art lovers surrounded by the paintings they own. At play is a double-possession; the possession of the paintings as objects, and the possession of the objects in these paintings. This double-possession is also present in Figure 1, showing the chemist surrounded by models - objects which he owns (or rather masters), thus evoking the chemist's mastery of the molecular realm. One is also reminded here of Holbein's famous 1533 painting, The Ambassadors, showing two men in rich surroundings, standing on opposite sides of shelves filled with scientific instruments, mainly instruments of navigation. Similarly, the objects in Figure 3 could be considered instruments of navigation, of exploration, with the notable exception that they are designed to exploit the riches of a microscopic universe, not of far-away lands: see John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: British Broadcasting Corporation & Penguin Books, 1972), 83ff. Figure 2 brings to mind the 'Great White Hunter' of colonial times, a pose endlessly replicated in popular fishing and hunting magazines and in the snapshots of weekend anglers and hunters. This similarity is emphasized by the relaxed pose of Linus Pauling, leaning slightly towards his 'trophy', his facial expression reflecting a mix of mild pride and contentment. For a discussion of the portrayal of scientists with their instruments, see Gregg DeYoung, 'Postage Stamps and the Popular Iconography of Science', Journal of American Culture, Vol. 9 (1986), 1-13.
4. It has been suggested that the use of models for depicting atomic arrangements dates back as far as Kepler, in 1611: see Deane K. Smith, Bibliography on Molecular and Crystal Structure Models (Washington, DC: US National Bureau of Standards, 1960), 1.
5. These are perhaps the most perspicuous and famous examples of the use of molecular models. In fact, the use of these models extends to all disciplines that have interests in molecular or crystalline structures (such as chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry, molecular biology and even geology). Furthermore, models have been used within these disciplines to address a vast array of different problems. To my knowledge, there has not been any systematic survey of the different uses of molecular models.
6. There are of course noticeable exceptions. O.B. Ramsay, a chemist and historian of chemistry, has done interesting historical analyses of the role of molecular models in the development of stereochemistry and in the development of conformational analysis: see O. Bertrand Ramsay, 'Molecular Models in the Early Development of Stereochemistry', in Ramsay (ed.), Van't Hoff-Lebel Centennial, ACS Symposium Series No.12 (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1975), 74-96; and Ramsay. 'The Early History and Development of Conformational Analysis', in James G. Traynham (ed.), Essays on the History of Organic Chemistry (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 54-77.
7. There are of course noticeable exceptions. O.B. Ramsay, a chemist and historian of chemistry, has done interesting historical analyses of the role of molecular models in the development of stereochemistry and in the development of conformational analysis: see O. Bertrand Ramsay, 'Molecular Models in the Early Development of Stereochemistry', in Ramsay (ed.), Van't Hoff-Lebel Centennial, ACS Symposium Series No.12 (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1975), 74-96; and Ramsay. 'The Early History and Development of Conformational Analysis', in James G. Traynham (ed.), Essays on the History of Organic Chemistry (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 54-77.
8. No attempt will be made here to synthesize these contributions, if only because such a task would be endless. But see, for example: Martin Rudwick, 'The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840', History of Science, Vol. 14 (1976), 149-95; Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: The MlT Press, 1990); Karin Knorr-Cetina and Klaus Amann, 'Image Dissection in Natural Scientific Enquiry', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 15 (1990), 259-83; Bruno Latour and Jean de Noblet (eds), Les 'vues de l'esprit': Visualisation et connaissance scientifique, Special Issue of the Monograph Series Culture Technique, Vol. 14 (1985).
9. No attempt will be made here to synthesize these contributions, if only because such a task would be endless. But see, for example: Martin Rudwick, 'The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840', History of Science, Vol. 14 (1976), 149-95; Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: The MlT Press, 1990); Karin Knorr-Cetina and Klaus Amann, 'Image Dissection in Natural Scientific Enquiry', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 15 (1990), 259-83; Bruno Latour and Jean de Noblet (eds), Les 'vues de l'esprit': Visualisation et connaissance scientifique, Special Issue of the Monograph Series Culture Technique, Vol. 14 (1985).
10. No attempt will be made here to synthesize these contributions, if only because such a task would be endless. But see, for example: Martin Rudwick, 'The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840', History of Science, Vol. 14 (1976), 149-95; Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: The MlT Press, 1990); Karin Knorr-Cetina and Klaus Amann, 'Image Dissection in Natural Scientific Enquiry', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 15 (1990), 259-83; Bruno Latour and Jean de Noblet (eds), Les 'vues de l'esprit': Visualisation et connaissance scientifique, Special Issue of the Monograph Series Culture Technique, Vol. 14 (1985).
11. No attempt will be made here to synthesize these contributions, if only because such a task would be endless. But see, for example: Martin Rudwick, 'The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840', History of Science, Vol. 14 (1976), 149-95; Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: The MlT Press, 1990); Karin Knorr-Cetina and Klaus Amann, 'Image Dissection in Natural Scientific Enquiry', Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 15 (1990), 259-83; Bruno Latour and Jean de Noblet (eds), Les 'vues de l'esprit': Visualisation et connaissance scientifique, Special Issue of the Monograph Series Culture Technique, Vol. 14 (1985).
12. The corpora of these two fields of enquiry overlap extensively but, for specific examples, see: Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Joseph Rouse, Knowledge and Power (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989); David Gooding, Experiments and the Making of Meaning (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990); Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
13. The corpora of these two fields of enquiry overlap extensively but, for specific examples, see: Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Joseph Rouse, Knowledge and Power (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989); David Gooding, Experiments and the Making of Meaning (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990); Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
14. The corpora of these two fields of enquiry overlap extensively but, for specific examples, see: Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Joseph Rouse, Knowledge and Power (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989); David Gooding, Experiments and the Making of Meaning (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990); Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
15. The corpora of these two fields of enquiry overlap extensively but, for specific examples, see: Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Joseph Rouse, Knowledge and Power (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989); David Gooding, Experiments and the Making of Meaning (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990); Andrew Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
16. In technical terms, the aspects of molecular structures that can be represented by molecular models fall into four categories: 'constitution' denotes the atoms present in a molecule and the bonds between them; 'configuration' denotes the spatial arrangements of atoms and bonds in a molecule of a given constitution; 'conformation' denotes the possible different spatial arrangements in a molecule of known constitution and configuration; and, finally, 'chirality' denotes the property of three-dimensional structures that are not superimposable upon their mirror images: see W. David Ollis, 'Models and Molecules', Proceedings of the Royal Institution of London, Vol. 45 (1972), 1-31, at 2.
17. Witnessable properties refer to properties that are accessible to the senses either directly, or through recorded instrumental measurements.
18. This idea is often expressed in biochemistry by the structure/function trope. For a clear exposé of the importance of structure in accounting for the properties of chemical compounds, see Robert B. Woodward, 'Art And Science in the Synthesis of Organic Compounds: Retrospect and Prospect', in Maeve O'Connor (ed.), Pointers and Pathways in Research (Bombay: CIBA of India Limited, 1963), 23-41.
19. See, for example: Smith, op. cit. note 2; Douglas G. Nicholson, 'Modelling Molecules', Chemical and Engineering News, Vol. 30 (1952), 3164-67; and Anne Walton, Molecular and Crystal Structure Models (Chichester, Hants: Ellis Horwood, 1978).
20. See, for example: Smith, op. cit. note 2; Douglas G. Nicholson, 'Modelling Molecules', Chemical and Engineering News, Vol. 30 (1952), 3164-67; and Anne Walton, Molecular and Crystal Structure Models (Chichester, Hants: Ellis Horwood, 1978).
21. This classification is borrowed from Smith, op. cit. note 2.
22. For a related discussion of the diversity of conventions in graphical representations in chemistry, see Roald Hoffmann and Pierre Laszlo, 'Representation in Chemistry', Diogenes, No. 147 (1989), 23-51.
23. Robert B. Corey, letter to John R. Platt, 8 March 1960 (California Institute of Technology Archives, Robert B. Corey Collection, Folder 3.2).
24. Jane S. Richardson et al., 'Looking at Proteins: Representations, Folding, Packing and Design', Biophysical Journal, Vol. 63 (1992), 1186-209, at 1186.
25. Here I am paraphrasing Michael Lynch, 'Science in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Moral and Epistemic Relations Between Diagrams and Photographs', Biology and Philosophy, Vol. 6 (1991), 205-26, at 208.
26. On the concept of mathematization, see Michael Lynch, 'The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 5, 153-82, at 169.
27. For a related discussion of the relationship between the two-dimensional visual traces or signatures of microscopic entities and three-dimensional graphical models in biology, see Lynch, op. cit. note 16, 167-68.
28. Even constitutive details, such as hydrogen atoms, for example, are also often left out.
29. Robert A. Harte, Molecules in Three Dimensions: A Guide to the Construction of Models of Biochemically Interesting Compounds with CPK Models (Bethesda, MD: American Society of Biological Chemists, 1969), 1.
30. Thomas H. Hazlehurst, Jr and Harvey A. Neville, 'New Models of Old Molecules', Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 12 (1935), 128-32, at 128.
31. See, for example: Alan Bassindale, The Third Dimension in Organic Chemistry (Chichester, Hants: John Wiley and Sons, 1984), 5; Ernest L. Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1962), 13; Kurt Mislow, Introduction to Stereochemistry (New York: W.A. Benjamin, 1966), 42; Stanley H. Pine et al., Organic Chemistry, 4th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 91.
32. See, for example: Alan Bassindale, The Third Dimension in Organic Chemistry (Chichester, Hants: John Wiley and Sons, 1984), 5; Ernest L. Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1962), 13; Kurt Mislow, Introduction to Stereochemistry (New York: W.A. Benjamin, 1966), 42; Stanley H. Pine et al., Organic Chemistry, 4th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 91.
33. See, for example: Alan Bassindale, The Third Dimension in Organic Chemistry (Chichester, Hants: John Wiley and Sons, 1984), 5; Ernest L. Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1962), 13; Kurt Mislow, Introduction to Stereochemistry (New York: W.A. Benjamin, 1966), 42; Stanley H. Pine et al., Organic Chemistry, 4th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 91.
34. See, for example: Alan Bassindale, The Third Dimension in Organic Chemistry (Chichester, Hants: John Wiley and Sons, 1984), 5; Ernest L. Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1962), 13; Kurt Mislow, Introduction to Stereochemistry (New York: W.A. Benjamin, 1966), 42; Stanley H. Pine et al., Organic Chemistry, 4th edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 91.
35. Hoffmann & Laszlo, op. cit. note 12, 42.
36. For a discussion of the production, inspection and transformation of inscriptions as a central laboratory research activity, see Bruno Latour, 'Drawing Things Together', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 5, 19-68, at 39.
37. 'Eidetic representation' is used here in the same sense as Lynch's 'eidetic image', that is, the generalized or idealized portrayal of an object. The term 'eidos' was first proposed by Husserl, but is used in a different way by Lynch: see Lynch, op. cit. note 16, 162.
38. The use of material analogies is not exclusive to the field of chemistry. Other examples can be found in the domain of biology and the health sciences, such as plastic skeletons and 'dissectible' plastic models used in teaching anatomy, or silicone models used to teach lump-detection skills in breast self-examination. This last case is particularly interesting, since such models are designed to convey exclusively tactile information.
39. Latour, op. cit. note 23, 20-2.1.
40. James D. Watson, The Double Helix (New York: Atheneum, 1968), Chapter 27.
41. As we shall see later, the capacity of other research sites to assemble models similar to the original (or, rather, the lack of such capacities) rapidly became an issue for the scientific community.
42. Edward E. Tufte, Envisioning Information (Chichester, Hants: Graphics Press, 1990), 16.
43. A myriad of techniques are used to render graphically the structure of molecules. These include the photography of models and various forms of drawings, based on specific graphical or chemical conventions. Stereoscopy is commonly used to convey the three-dimensional structure. The structure can also be rendered textually, by simply writing down, for example, the space-coordinate of each atom.
44. Latour, op. cit. note 23, 22. For a short historical discussion of the use of models in engineering, see Eugene S. Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 102-07. For a short but telling analysis of the role of models in Renaissance architecture, see the exhibit brochure Italian Renaissance Architecture (Washington, DC: United States National Gallery of Art, 1994). This brochure points out, in particular, how the development of the use of models as an architectural tool parallels the development of modern architecture. See also Robert B. Harmon, Architectural Models: A Selected Bibliography (Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies, 1980).
45. Latour, op. cit. note 23, 22. For a short historical discussion of the use of models in engineering, see Eugene S. Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 102-07. For a short but telling analysis of the role of models in Renaissance architecture, see the exhibit brochure Italian Renaissance Architecture (Washington, DC: United States National Gallery of Art, 1994). This brochure points out, in particular, how the development of the use of models as an architectural tool parallels the development of modern architecture. See also Robert B. Harmon, Architectural Models: A Selected Bibliography (Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies, 1980).
46. Latour, op. cit. note 23, 22. For a short historical discussion of the use of models in engineering, see Eugene S. Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 102-07. For a short but telling analysis of the role of models in Renaissance architecture, see the exhibit brochure Italian Renaissance Architecture (Washington, DC: United States National Gallery of Art, 1994). This brochure points out, in particular, how the development of the use of models as an architectural tool parallels the development of modern architecture. See also Robert B. Harmon, Architectural Models: A Selected Bibliography (Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies, 1980).
47. Quoted in O. Bertrand Ramsay, Stereochemistry (London: Heyden, 1981), 62-63.
48. Quentin R. Peterson, 'Some Reflections on the Use and Abuse of Molecular Models', Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 47 (1970), 24-29.
49. Laurence E. Strong, 'Against Trivial Research' (Letter to the Editor), Chemical & Engineering News, Vol. 45 (6 March 1967), 7-8.
50. Jack De Ment, 'Intriguing New Ideas on Atoms' (Letter to the Editor), Chemical & Engineering News, Vol. 45 (24 April 1967), 7.
51. See David Gooding, 'Putting Agency Back into Experiment', and Andrew Pickering, 'From Science as Knowledge to Science as Practice', in Pickering (ed.), op. cit. note 6, 65-112, 1-26.
52. Gooding, op. cit. note 36, and Andrew Pickering, 'The Mangle of Practice: Agency and Emergence in the Sociology of Science', American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 99 (1993), 559-89.
53. Richardson et al., op. cit. note 14, 1186 (our emphasis). In order to transcend this limitation of computer modelling systems, researchers at the University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill) coupled a powerful computer modelling system to a mechanical arm that feeds back to the operator the attractive and repulsive forces of the virtual molecules she or he is working on: see 'Molecular Docking Arm', Popular Science (November 1991), 24.
54. David W. Theobald, 'On Visualizing Chemical Structures', Education in Chemistry, Vol. 5 (1968), 99-100, at 100.
55. Pine et al., op. cit. note 21, 91.
56. Mislow, op. cit. note 21, 42-46.
57. Bassindale, op. cit. note 21, 3-10.
58. Pierre Laszlo, La parole des choses ou le language de la chimie (Paris: Hermann, 1993), 77 (my translation: original in French).
59. Ibid.
60. Attempts to state that models are conventional illusions and yet capable, in some circumstances, of being interpreted realistically, is reminiscent of what Gilbert and Mulkay have dubbed 'Trubshaw's dilemma'. They describe this dilemma as growing out 'of scientists' use of both realist and fictional repertoires to characterize their pictures': see G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 160.
61. For a discussion of non-reflexivity in scientific illustrations, see Gilbert & Mulkay, op. cit. note 45, 147.
62. Ibid., 148.
63. In a short discussion of 'mock-ups' as a glossing practice, Garfinkel and Sacks suggest that the interpretative problem finds its solution in the user's willingness, whenever discrepancies between the model and the 'actual situation' crop up, to pay full authority to the latter. It should be obvious in this case that the models are in themselves a component of the process through which what counts as the 'actual situation' is defined in practice, leaving the interpretative problem open. See Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks, 'On Formal Structures of Practical Actions', in John C. McKinney and Edward A. Tirykian, Theoretical Sociology: Perspectives and Development (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1970), 337-66, at 363.
64. Gooding, op. cit. note 36, 71-72.
65. Ibid., 72.
66. Ramsay, op. cit. note 4.
67. As the size of molecules grows, so does, exponentially, the number of possible conformations. In the case of macromolecules such as proteins, it is for all practical purposes impossible to test all possible conformations in order to decide which is the most probable.
68. Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey, and Herman R. Branson, 'The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain', Proceedings of the United States National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 37 (1951), 205-11. Interestingly enough, reliance on mechanical models was mentioned specifically only once in the long series of articles published by Pauling and Corey on protein structure in 1951 and early 1952. This was in the last article of the series, a study of the configurations of polypeptide chains with cis amide groups: see Linus Pauling and Robert B. Corey, 'Configurations of Polypeptides Chains with Equivalent Cis Amide Groups', ibid., Vol. 38 (1952), 86-93, at 86. A short discussion of the use of models by Pauling and Corey can be found in Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 261-64.
69. Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey, and Herman R. Branson, 'The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain', Proceedings of the United States National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 37 (1951), 205-11. Interestingly enough, reliance on mechanical models was mentioned specifically only once in the long series of articles published by Pauling and Corey on protein structure in 1951 and early 1952. This was in the last article of the series, a study of the configurations of polypeptide chains with cis amide groups: see Linus Pauling and Robert B. Corey, 'Configurations of Polypeptides Chains with Equivalent Cis Amide Groups', ibid., Vol. 38 (1952), 86-93, at 86. A short discussion of the use of models by Pauling and Corey can be found in Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 261-64.
70. Linus Pauling, Robert B. Corey, and Herman R. Branson, 'The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain', Proceedings of the United States National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 37 (1951), 205-11. Interestingly enough, reliance on mechanical models was mentioned specifically only once in the long series of articles published by Pauling and Corey on protein structure in 1951 and early 1952. This was in the last article of the series, a study of the configurations of polypeptide chains with cis amide groups: see Linus Pauling and Robert B. Corey, 'Configurations of Polypeptides Chains with Equivalent Cis Amide Groups', ibid., Vol. 38 (1952), 86-93, at 86. A short discussion of the use of models by Pauling and Corey can be found in Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 261-64.
71. Watson, op. cit. note 27.
72. For a discussion of the use of models to refine X-ray crystallography data, see John C. Kendrew, 'The Three-Dimensional Structure of a Protein Molecule', Scientific American, Vol. 208 (December 1961), 97-110.
73. Linus Pauling, 'Modern Structural Chemistry', Science, Vol. 123 (17 February 1956), 255-50, at 257-58.
74. Rouse, op. cit. note 6, 40.
75. Martin H. Krieger, Doing Physics (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992), 117-19.
76. Linus Pauling, General Chemistry (New York: Dover, 1988), 196. Appropriately, b is expressed in 1 or ml mole.
77. Joseph O. Hirschfelder, 'Intermolecular Forces', in Linus Pauling and Harvey A. Itano (eds), Molecular Structure and Biological Specificity (Washington, DC: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1957), 84-90, at 84.
78. Herbert Arthur Stuart, 'Über neue Molekülmodelle', Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (B), Vol. 27 (1934), 350-58.
79. Joseph O. Hirschfelder, letter to O. Bertrand Ramsay, 30 October 1978 (Division of Archives, University of Wisconsin in Madison).
80. Joseph O. Hirschfelder, letter to Linus Pauling, 23 September 1938 (Ava Helen & Linus Pauling Papers, Oregon State University).
81. Joseph O. Hirschfelder, undated manuscript (Division of Archives, University of Wisconsin in Madison).
82. Fisher Scientific Company (Pittsburgh, PA), 'New Molecular Models Conform with Modern Theories', The Laboratory, Vol. 10, No. 5 (1939), 94-96, at 95. This journal was published by Fisher Scientific.
83. Fisher Scientific Company, New Molecular Models Conform with Modem Theories, Company Brochure (ca. 1939).
84. Hirschfelder, op. cit. note 62.
85. Hirschfelder, op. cit. note 63.
86. Linus Pauling, letter to Joseph O. Hirschfelder, 16 May 1939 (Ava Helen & Linus Pauling Papers, Oregon State University). Pauling goes on to suggest that the Fisher company might make these models available to his laboratory at a nominal price, 'because of the fact that the work in our laboratory provides to some extent the basis for the models and because the use of the models in our researches on molecular structure might be of some value in advertising'.
87. Fisher Scientific Company, op. cit. note 66, 5. On Dorothy Wrinch and her cyclol theory of protein structure, see Kay, op. cit. note 53, 116.
88. Hugh S. Taylor, 'Large Molecules Through Atomic Spectacles', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 85 (1941), 1-12, at 1.
89. Fisher, op. cit. note 66, 5.
90. Fisher Scientific Company, 'Molecules in 3-D', The Laboratory, Vol. 27 (1959), 112-13, at 112.
91. Joseph O. Hirschfelder (ca. 1938), Specifications of Atomic Models, undated manuscript (Division of Archives, University of Madison-Wisconsin). This short document also points out that the values specified by Hirschfelder were corrected by John Youngs Beach, a Caltech graduate and research physical chemist with the California Research Corporation.
92. Linus Pauling and Lawrence O. Brockway, 'Carbon-Carbon Bond Distances', Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 59 (1937), 1223-36.
93. For a discussion of additivity in the physical sciences, see Krieger, op. cit. note 58, 44. Two of the features of additivity, as discussed by Krieger, seem particularly relevant here. The first is 'marginalism', or how the addition of small parts result in small effects. The second is 'invertibility' or 'decomposability', or how 'something big may be analyzed into smaller parts, parts that when added up compose that big thing': ibid. An interesting difference is that while Krieger insists that physicists do not put together 'actual objects', but rather add up numerical values derived from these objects, we can see that chemists do rely readily on the first strategy.
94. H.A. Stuart, Molekulstrukturen (Berlin: Springer, 1934).
95. B.M. Wepster, 'Stuart's "Atomkalotten"', Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas, Vol. 65 (1946), 318.
96. Linus Pauling, letter to Joseph O. Hirschfelder, 26 September 1938 (Ava Helen & Linus Pauling Papers, Oregon State University). In this letter, Pauling, contrarily to Hirschfelder, explicitly uses the expression 'van der Waals radius' (even when he obviously means a diameter).
97. Fisher, op. cit. note 66, 6 (emphasis added).
98. California Institute of Technology, Progress Report to the Rockefeller Foundation on Development of Chemistry-Biology Program at the California Institute of Technology (1947), 16-17 (Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Foundation Collection, Record Group 1.2, Series 2050, Box 4, Folder 24).
99. Robert B. Corey and Linus Pauling, 'Molecular Models of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins', The Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 24 (1953), 621-27, at 622 (emphasis added).
100. Ibid., 622.
101. Ibid., 625.
102. Pauling & Corey, op. cit. note 53, 86.
103. Robert B. Corey, 'X-Ray Studies of Amino Acids and Peptides', Advances in Protein Chemistry, Vol. 4 (1948), 385-406.
104. Linus Pauling (1939), The Molecular Structure of Proteins (Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Foundation Collection, Record Group 1.1, Series 205, Box 6, Folder 82).
105. California Institute of Technology, Plastic Models (23 March 1956), 1 (California Institute of Technology Archives, Robert B. Corey Collection, Folder 3.2).
106. John R. Platt, 'The Need for Better Macromolecular Models', Science, Vol. 131 (29 April 1960), 1309-10.
107. Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry Study Section of the National Institutes of Health, Conference of the Committee on Atomic and Molecular Models (Verbatim Report) (Berkeley, CA, 25 July 1960), 6.
108. Ibid., 51.
109. Ibid., 58.
110. Ibid., 53-55 (emphasis added).
111. Walter Koltun, 'Precision Space-Filling Atomic Models', Biopolymers, Vol. 3 (1965), 665-79, at 665.
112. In the end, selecting the van der Waals radii for this new set of models proved to be probably one of the less difficult tasks. By the time commercial production started in 1966, they had required the involvement of the US National Science Foundation (which paid for the very expensive plastic moulds) and of the American Society of Biological Chemists, as well as some ingenious design work from Walter Koltun, who patented a strong yet flexible plastic connector to assemble the models. A complete description of the CPK models, as well as a short story of their design can be found in Koltun, op. cit. note 94.
113. Barry Barnes, Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), 7.
114. For a criticism of Barnes' mapping analogy, see Paul Tibbetts, 'Representation and the Realist-Constructivist Controversy', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 5, 69-84, 81-82.
115. Alberto Cambrosio, Daniel Jacobi and Peter Keating, 'Ehrlich's "Beautiful Pictures" and the Controversial Beginnings of Immunological Imagery', Isis, Vol. 84 (1993), 622-99, at 671.
116. On this topic, see Joseph F. Fruton, Molecules and Life: Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1972), and Robert C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974).
117. On this topic, see Joseph F. Fruton, Molecules and Life: Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1972), and Robert C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974).
118. On Pauling's early career, see Robert Paradowski, The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling, unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin (Ann Arbor, MI: Xerox University Microfilms, 1974).
119. Not surprisingly, a majority of the scientists who participated actively in the development of the CPK models had been at some point or other collaborators of Linus Pauling. I discuss this issue more in depth in 'Holding Macromolecules in Focus: A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Development of the CPK Models' (paper presented at the 1994 Annual Meeting of the Society for Social Studies of Science [4S], New Orleans, LA, 12-16 October 1994).