From the "Single Confused Page" to the "Decalogue for Six Billion Persons": The Roots of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the French Revolution

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 459-514

  Marks, Stephen P ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0011635955     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (313)

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3rd Sess. (Resolutions, part 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949) [hereinafter UDHR].
2. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3rd Sess. (Resolutions, part 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949) [hereinafter UDHR].
3. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen, 26 Aug. 1789 (1789), reprinted in French in STÉPHANE RIALS, LA DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN 21-26 (1988), reprinted in English in GEORGE A. BERMAN, HENRY P. DE VRIES & NINA M. GALSTON, FRENCH LAW: CONSTITUTION AND SELECTIVE LEGISLATION § 2, at 3 (1994) [hereinafter Declaration of 1789]; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 24 June 1793 (1793), also known as the Constitution of the Year I, reprinted in French in LUCIEN JAUME, LES DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Du Débat 1789-1793 au Prémbule de 1946) 299 (1989), reprinted in English in FRANK MALOY ANDERSON, THE CONSTITUTIONS AND OTHER SELECT DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF FRANCE 1789-1907 at 171 (1908) [hereinafter Declaration of 1793].
4. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen, 26 Aug. 1789 (1789), reprinted in French in STÉPHANE RIALS, LA DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN 21-26 (1988), reprinted in English in GEORGE A. BERMAN, HENRY P. DE VRIES & NINA M. GALSTON, FRENCH LAW: CONSTITUTION AND SELECTIVE LEGISLATION § 2, at 3 (1994) [hereinafter Declaration of 1789]; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 24 June 1793 (1793), also known as the Constitution of the Year I, reprinted in French in LUCIEN JAUME, LES DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Du Débat 1789-1793 au Prémbule de 1946) 299 (1989), reprinted in English in FRANK MALOY ANDERSON, THE CONSTITUTIONS AND OTHER SELECT DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF FRANCE 1789-1907 at 171 (1908) [hereinafter Declaration of 1793].
5. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen, 26 Aug. 1789 (1789), reprinted in French in STÉPHANE RIALS, LA DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN 21-26 (1988), reprinted in English in GEORGE A. BERMAN, HENRY P. DE VRIES & NINA M. GALSTON, FRENCH LAW: CONSTITUTION AND SELECTIVE LEGISLATION § 2, at 3 (1994) [hereinafter Declaration of 1789]; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 24 June 1793 (1793), also known as the Constitution of the Year I, reprinted in French in LUCIEN JAUME, LES DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Du Débat 1789-1793 au Prémbule de 1946) 299 (1989), reprinted in English in FRANK MALOY ANDERSON, THE CONSTITUTIONS AND OTHER SELECT DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF FRANCE 1789-1907 at 171 (1908) [hereinafter Declaration of 1793].
6. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen, 26 Aug. 1789 (1789), reprinted in French in STÉPHANE RIALS, LA DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN 21-26 (1988), reprinted in English in GEORGE A. BERMAN, HENRY P. DE VRIES & NINA M. GALSTON, FRENCH LAW: CONSTITUTION AND SELECTIVE LEGISLATION § 2, at 3 (1994) [hereinafter Declaration of 1789]; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 24 June 1793 (1793), also known as the Constitution of the Year I, reprinted in French in LUCIEN JAUME, LES DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Du Débat 1789-1793 au Prémbule de 1946) 299 (1989), reprinted in English in FRANK MALOY ANDERSON, THE CONSTITUTIONS AND OTHER SELECT DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF FRANCE 1789-1907 at 171 (1908) [hereinafter Declaration of 1793].
7. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen, 26 Aug. 1789 (1789), reprinted in French in STÉPHANE RIALS, LA DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME ET DU CITOYEN 21-26 (1988), reprinted in English in GEORGE A. BERMAN, HENRY P. DE VRIES & NINA M. GALSTON, FRENCH LAW: CONSTITUTION AND SELECTIVE LEGISLATION § 2, at 3 (1994) [hereinafter Declaration of 1789]; Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 24 June 1793 (1793), also known as the Constitution of the Year I, reprinted in French in LUCIEN JAUME, LES DÉCLARATION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Du Débat 1789-1793 au Prémbule de 1946) 299 (1989), reprinted in English in FRANK MALOY ANDERSON, THE CONSTITUTIONS AND OTHER SELECT DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HISTORY OF FRANCE 1789-1907 at 171 (1908) [hereinafter Declaration of 1793].
8. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
9. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
10. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
11. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
12. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
13. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
14. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
15. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
16. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
17. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
18. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
19. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
20. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
21. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist
22. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
23. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
24. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
25. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
26. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
27. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
28. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
29. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
30. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
31. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
32. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
33. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
34. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
35. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987);
36. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
37. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
38. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
39. The literature on the debate between cultural relativism and universalism about human rights is vast. The following are among the most widely cited on this topic: Kay Boulware-Miller, Female Circumcision: Challenges to the Practice as a Human Rights Violation, 8 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 155 (1985); Katherine Brennan, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a Case Study, 7 LAW & INEQ. 367 (1989); CARNEGIE COUNCIL ON ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, HUMAN RIGHTS DIALOGUE (quarterly bulletin designed to highlight the shifting parameters of the human rights discourse, particularly with respect to East and Southeast Asia); Jack Donnelly, Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights, 76 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 303, 303-20 (1982); Jack Donnelly, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 400 (1984); Human Rights and Anthropology, in CULTURAL SURVIVAL (Theodore E. Downing & Gilbert Kushner eds., 1988) (containing an extensive bibliography by Jennifer Schirmer, Alison D. Renteln, and Laurie Wiseberg); Kevin Dwyer, Universal Visions, Communal Visions: Human Rights and Traditions, 58-59 PEUPLES MÉDITERRANÉENS 205-20 (Jan.-June 1992); Asbjørn Eide, Making Human Rights Universal: Unfinished Business, 6 NORDIC J. HUM. RTS. 51 (1988); H.G. Espiell, The Evolving Concept of Human Rights: Western, Socialist and Third World Approaches, in HUMAN RIGHTS: THIRTY YEARS AFTER THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION 41-65 (B.G. Ramcharan ed., 1979); C.C. Ferguson, Global Human Rights; Challenge and Prospects, 8 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 367 (1979); Rhoda Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801 (1987); Rhoda Howard, Is There an African Concept of Human Rights?, in FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11-32 (R.S. Vincent ed., 1986); RHODA E. HOWARD, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE SEARCH FOR COMMUNITY (1995); Asmarom Legesse, Human Rights in African Political Culture, in THE MORAL IMPERATIVES OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A WORLD SURVEY 125 (Kenneth W. Thompson ed 1980); Carlos Eduardo Maldonado, Human Right, Solidarity and Subsidiarity: Essays on Social Ontology (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series V. Latin America, Vol. 5) Council for Research in Values & Philosophy (1997); JACQUES MARITAIN, HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS (1948); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or A Clash with a Construct? 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 307 (1987); Abdullahi An-Na'im, Religious Minorities Under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 1 (1987); ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA'IM & FRANCIS M. DENG (CONTRIBUTOR), HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (1990); JAMES W. NICKEL, PHILOSOPHICAL REJECTIONS ON THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1987); Raimundo Panikkar, Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept?, 120 DIOGENES 75 (1982); Adamantia Pollis, Liberal, Socialist, and Third World Perspectives of Human Rights, in TOWARDS A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK (Peter Schwab & Adamantia Pollis eds., 1982); Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316, 316-44 (1996); ADAMANTIA POLLIS & PETER SCHWAB, HUMAN RIGHTS: CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (1978); F. Przetacznik, The Socialist Concept of Human Rights: Its Philosophical Background and Political Justifications, 13 REVUE BELGE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL 238-78 (1977); Alison Renteln, Relativism and the Search for Human Rights, 90 AM. ANTHROPOLOGIST 56-72 (1988); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21-29 (1989); Surya Prakash Sinha, The Anthropocentric Theory of International Law as a Basis for Human Rights 10 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 469 (1978); Surya Prakash Sinha, Human Rights: A Non-Western Viewpoint 67 ARCHIV FÜR RECHTS- UND SOZIALPHILOSOPHIE 76 (1981); F.R. Téson, International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, 25 VA. J. INT'L L. 869-98 (1985); R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and Cultural Relativism, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 37-57 (R.J. Vincent ed., 1986); HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Richard A. Wilson ed., 1997).
40. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, ¶ 18, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993),
41. reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 1667 (1993).
42. Id. ¶ 5.
43. Malaysia-Human Rights: Reopen East-West Debate On Rights, Inter Press Service, 1 Aug. 1997, available on LEXIS.
44. Mahathir Warns of Superpowers' Scare-Tactics on Human Rights Review, AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, 31 July 1997, available on LEXIS.
45. Id.
46. UPENDRA BAXI, MAMBRINO'S HELMET?: HUMAN RIGHTS FOR A CHANGING WORLD 2 (1994).
47. Id. at xii.
48. See id. at xiii.
49. Id. at 5.
50. Id. at 8.
51. See Imre Szabo, Historical Foundations of Human Rights and Subsequent Developments, in 1 THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS 11, 14 (Karel Vasak & Philip Alston eds., 1982); Lynn Hunt, Introduction: The Revolutionary Origins of Human Rights, in THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A BRIEF DOCUMENTARY HISTORY 3 (Lynn Hunt ed. & trans., 1996).
52. See Imre Szabo, Historical Foundations of Human Rights and Subsequent Developments, in 1 THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS 11, 14 (Karel Vasak & Philip Alston eds., 1982); Lynn Hunt, Introduction: The Revolutionary Origins of Human Rights, in THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A BRIEF DOCUMENTARY HISTORY 3 (Lynn Hunt ed. & trans., 1996).
53. Szabo, supra note 14, at 14.
54. Hunt, supra note 14, at 3. But see R.R. PALMER & JOEL COLTON, A HISTORY OF THE MODERN WORLD 360 (6th ed., 1984) (claiming a lack of ambiguity: "Man" in this sense was meant to apply abstractly, regardless of nationality, race, or sex. In French, as in English, then as now, the word "man" was used to designate all human beings, and the Declaration of 1789 was not intended to refer to males alone. . . . Very few at the time argued for legal equality between the sexes.). The issue of gender equality will be raised later in the text.
55. Hunt, supra note 14, at 3. But see R.R. PALMER & JOEL COLTON, A HISTORY OF THE MODERN WORLD 360 (6th ed., 1984) (claiming a lack of ambiguity: "Man" in this sense was meant to apply abstractly, regardless of nationality, race, or sex. In French, as in English, then as now, the word "man" was used to designate all human beings, and the Declaration of 1789 was not intended to refer to males alone. . . . Very few at the time argued for legal equality between the sexes.). The issue of gender equality will be raised later in the text.
56. MAHMOUD HUSSEIN [PSEUDONYM FOR BAHGAT ELNADI & ADEL RIFAAT], VERSANT SUD DE LA LIBERTÉ: ESSAI SUR L'EMERGENCE DE L'INDIVIDU DANS LE TIERS MONDE 170 (1989) (translation author's).
57. Id. at 171.
58. JÜRGEN HABERMAS, BETWEEN FACTS AND NORMS: A CONTRIBUTION TO A DISCOURSE THEORY OF LAW AND DEMOCRACY 465 (1996).
59. See Charles Tilly, State and Counterrevolution in France, 56 SOC. RES. 71 (1989).
60. See Jean-François Fayard et al., Dictionnaire de la Révolution, in HISTOIRE ET DICTIONNAIRE DE LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE: 1789-1799, at 694 (Jean Tulard et al. eds., 1987).
61. Cahiers de doléances are the petitions or books of grievances drawn up by each of the three estates (aristocracy, clergy, and bourgeoisie) participating in the Estates General in 1789.
62. DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN (1795) [hereinafter Declaration of 1795].
63. CONSTITUTION OF YEAR III (1795).
64. American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, signed 2 May 1948, OEA/Ser.L/ V/II.71, at 17 (1988) (signed in Bogotá).
65. U.N. CHARTER art. 68, signed 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 Oct. 1945).
66. Id. pmbl.
67. Id. art. 1, ¶ 3.
68. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, pmbl.
69. Declaration of 1793, supra note 2. The 1793 text drops the word "ignorance" and adds "natural" before "rights of man." It also refers to "the world's" rather than "public" misfortunes and drops the words "and the corruption of governments." Id.
70. UDHR, supra note 1, pmbl.
71. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 261-62. Palmer noted that [t]he idea of progress is often said to be the dominant or characteristic idea of European civilization from the seventeenth century to the twentieth. It is a belief, a kind of non-religious faith, that the conditions of human life become better as time goes on, that in general each generation is better off than its predecessors and will contribute by its labors to an even better life for generations to come, and that in the long run all mankind will share in the same advance. Id. Marquis de Condorcet articulated this idea at the time of the French Revolution in Outline of the Progress of the Human Mind, MARQUIS DE CONDORCET, OUTLINE OF THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND (17_).
72. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 261-62. Palmer noted that [t]he idea of progress is often said to be the dominant or characteristic idea of European civilization from the seventeenth century to the twentieth. It is a belief, a kind of non-religious faith, that the conditions of human life become better as time goes on, that in general each generation is better off than its predecessors and will contribute by its labors to an even better life for generations to come, and that in the long run all mankind will share in the same advance. Id. Marquis de Condorcet articulated this idea at the time of the French Revolution in Outline of the Progress of the Human Mind, MARQUIS DE CONDORCET, OUTLINE OF THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND (17_).
73. Pierre Birnbaum, States, Ideologies and Collective Action in Western Europe, 32 INT'L SOC. SCI. J. 671, 671 (1980).
74. PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 402.
75. U.N. CHARTER, supra note 28, pmbl.
76. U.S. CONST. pmbl.
77. U.N. CHARTER, supra note 28, pmbl. Baxi does not hesitate to quote Nietzsche regarding the "adventures in human rights protection and promotion . . . as a ceaseless combat with the State." BAXI, supra note 9, at xi. State? What is that? Well then, open your ears to me, for now I shall speak to you about the death of peoples. State is the name of coldest of all cold monsters. Coldly, it tells lies too; and this lie grows out of its mouth. "I, the state, am the people." Id. (quoting Nietzsche).
78. U.N. CHARTER, supra note 28, art. 4.
79. Immanuel Wallerstein, The French Revolution as a World-Historical Event, 56 Soc. RES., supra note 20, at 34. See also infra text accompanying notes 100-02.
80. See Johannes Morsink, The Philosophy of the Universal Declaration, 6 HUM. RTS. Q. 309, 333 (1984).
81. See R.R. PALMER, THE WORLD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION chs. 3, 8, 9, 10 (1972). See also THE FRENCH REVOLUTON OF 1789 AND ITS IMPACT (Gail M. Schwab & John R. Jeanneney eds., 1995) (containing twenty-seven essays discussing the influence of the French Revolution in other countries).
82. See R.R. PALMER, THE WORLD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION chs. 3, 8, 9, 10 (1972). See also THE FRENCH REVOLUTON OF 1789 AND ITS IMPACT (Gail M. Schwab & John R. Jeanneney eds., 1995) (containing twenty-seven essays discussing the influence of the French Revolution in other countries).
83. JOHN P. HUMPHREY, HUMAN RIGHTS & THE UNITED NATIONS: A GREAT ADVENTURE 27-29 (1984).
84. Id. at 29.
85. Id.
86. Id.
87. CLAUDE MOSSÉ, L'ANTIQUITÉ DANS LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE 153 (1989).
88. Id. at 157.
89. Id. at 156 (translation author's).
90. FRANÇOIS FURET, The French Revolution Is Over, INTERPRETING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 1 (Elbourg Forster trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1981) (1978).
91. Id. at 79.
92. ISAIAH BERLIN, Two Concepts of Liberty, in FOUR ESSAYS ON LIBERTY 118, 129 (1970) (quoting Concordet).
93. Jean-Marie Domenach, Révolution et modernité, ESPRIT, June 1988, at 25 (translation author's).
94. See Jean-Marie Domenach, Interrogations, in LES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN QUESTION 21 (1989).
95. RIALS, supra note 2.
96. Id. at 339.
97. Elaine Pagels, The Roots and Origins of Human Rights, in HUMAN DIGNITY: THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 1, 2 (Alice H. Henkin ed., 1979).
98. Id. at 6. Contradicting her earlier reminder that Antigone is a poor example of human rights because she acted on "laws on God," Pagels explained that modern political thinkers "borrow[ed] the idea of natural law from Greek philosophical tradition and used it to counter claims of divine right. Id.
99. Olivier Mongin, Droits de l'Homme Une Généalogie Complexe, PROJET, Sept. 1980, at 51-56 (translation author's).
100. HABERMAS, supra note 19, at 467.
101. GEORGES LEFEBVRE, THE COMING OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 214 (R.R. Palmer trans., Princeton Univ. Press 1947) (1939).
102. H. LAUTERPACHT, AN INTERNATIONAL BILL OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1945).
103. Id. at 41.
104. Id. at 69-74.
105. H. LAUTERPACHT, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS (1950).
106. See HUMPHREY, supra note 44, at 31 (mentioning Lauterpacht's draft international bill of human rights as one of the draft texts available as models for the UDHR).
107. Morsink, supra note 42, at 333.
108. Karl Marx, On the Jewish Question, in 3 KARL MARX & FREDERICK ENGELS: COLLECTED WORKS 146 (Clemens Dutt trans., 1975).
109. FRANÇOIS FURET, MARX ET LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE 31 (1986) (citing to Marx's The Holy Family) (translation author's).
110. Marx, supra note 69, at 162.
111. Id.
112. Id. at 164.
113. Id.
114. Id. at 165.
115. Id. at 166.
116. Id. at 167.
117. Id. (quoting Rousseau's Contrat Social [Social Contract]) (translation author's). See also infra note 186.
118. Id at 168.
119. RICHARD N. HUNT, 1 THE POLITICAL IDEAS OF MARX AND ENGELS: MARXISM AND TOTALITARIAN DEMOCRACY, 1818-1850, at 5-6 (1974).
120. Id. at 72-73.
121. Id. at 73-74.
122. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 1.
123. Id. art. 29, ¶ 1.
124. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI) U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976) [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI) U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976) [hereinafter ICESCR].
125. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI) U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976) [hereinafter ICCPR]; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI) U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976) [hereinafter ICESCR].
126. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 29, ¶ 2; ICCPR, supra note 85, art. 12; ICESCR, supra note 85, art. 4.
127. HUNT, supra note 80, at 36 (quoting Karl Marx).
128. Karl Marx, Critique of the Gotha Program, in THE MARX-ENGELS READER 525, 531 (Robert C. Tucker ed., 2d ed. 1978).
129. Id. at 532.
130. Id. at 539.
131. Karl Marx, The Eighteenth of Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, reprinted in part in MODERN POLITICAL THOUGHT: READINGS FROM MACHIAVELLI TO NIETZSCHE 847 (David Wootton ed., 1996).
132. Karl Marx, The Civil War in France, reprinted in part in MODERN POLITICAL THOUGHT: READINGS FROM MACHIAVELLI TO NIETZSCHE, supra note 91, at 874.
133. JEAN JAURÈS, 4 HISTOIRE SOCIALISTE DE LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE (1923).
134. 1-2 DANIEL GUÉRIN, LA LUTTE DE CLASSES SOUS LA PREMIÈRE RÉPUBLIQUE 1793-1797 (2d ed. 1968) (arguing that the proletarian revolution began within the bourgeois revolution in France during the period covered by this book).
135. ALBERT VERDOODT, NAISSANCE ET SIGNIFICATION DE LA DÉCLARATION UNIVERSELLE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 49 (1964) (translation author's).
136. HUMPHREY, supra note 44, at 40.
137. Id. at 42.
138. See ANTONIO CASSESE, HUMAN RIGHTS IN A CHANGING WORLD 42 (1990). Cassese adds the reference to the role of the individual "as members of society," for example, in Article 22 on social security, and the exclution of activities contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations (Article 29 (3)) or destructive of rights (Article 30).
139. Id. at 44. See also infra text accompanying notes 235 and 236.
140. See Alain Finkielkraut, "Universality and National Identity," in 1789: An Idea That Changed the World, THE UNESCO COURIER, June 1989, at 30 (citing Abbé Sieyès, author of WHAT IS THE THIRD ESTATE? (Paul Mall 1963) (1789)).
141. FRANÇOIS FURET ET AL., DICTIONNAIRE CRITIQUE DE LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE: IDÉES 493 (1992) [hereinafter DICTIONNAIRE CRITIQUE].
142. The acquisition of habits of the rule of law and accountability of public officials are the significant features of the adaptation of cultures to constitutional democracy and not the restructuring of the cultural perceptions of the individual. Adamantia Pollis takes the contrary view that the "deterministic assumptions of modernization and democratization, inclusive of individual rights, have been refuted empirically." Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, supra note 3, at 317. She nevertheless finds it "ironic that while the Western liberal doctrine of human rights has not been universalized, the Western state has proliferated throughout the globe." Id. at 321. She makes the further point, which is at odds with the findings of the present article, that "philosophically, the Western doctrine of individual human rights excludes economic and social rights." Id. at 318 (footnote omitted).
143. Surya Prakash Sinha, The Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT'L L. 21, 52.
144. Id. at 21. Innumerable other scholars attribute to Western thought the centrality of the individual, whether drawing on political and social theories of 18th and 19th century philosophy or ancient religions. Thomas Cahill, for example, distinguishes the "cycliccal" worldview of Hinduism, Buddhism, taoism, or Shinto from the Western "processive" worldview, which originates with the Jewish vision of individuals. THOMAS CAHILL, THE GIFT OF THE JEWS: HOW A TRIBE OF DESERT NOMADS CHANGED THE WAY EVERYONE THINKS AND FEELS 249-51 (1998). It is, he says, "the worldview to which all Western people subscribe, a worldview that has now taken hold in many (and, to some extent, all) non-Western societies." Id. at 250-51 (1998). he concludes that "[w]e are the undeserving recipients of this history of the Jews, this long, excessive, miraculous development of ethical monotheism without which our ideas of equality and personalism are unlikely ever to have come into being and surely would never have matured in the way that they have." Id. at 250. See also id. at 248-49 (citing human rights developments in Europe, America, Africa, Asia, and Latin America as impossible without the Hebrew Bible). Finally, Cahill asserts that democracy "grows directly out of the Israelite vision of individuals, subjects of value because they are images of God, each with a unique and personal destiny. There is no way that it could ever have been 'self-evident that all men are created equal' without the intervention of the Jews." Id. at 249. 106. Id. at 31-52. are created equal' without the intervention of the Jews. Id. at 249.
145. Id at 31-52.
146. SAMUEL P. HUNCTINTON, THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS AND THE REMAKING OF WORLD ORDER 71 (1996).
147. Id.
148. Id. at 194.
149. Id. at 195 (referring to the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, supra, note 4).
150. Id. at 196.
151. Thomas M. Franck, Is Personal Freedom a Western Value?, 91 AM. J. INT'L L. 593, 608 (1997).
152. Id.
153. Id. at 603-04.
154. See id. at 605.
155. This point was made during the retreat of human rights activists in Crete in 1989. See HENRY J. STEINER, DIVERSE PARTNERS: NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE HUMAN RIGHTS MOVEMENT 34-37 (1991).
156. Kim Dae Jung, Is Culture Destiny?: The Myth of Asia's Anti-Democratic Values, 73 FOREIGN AFF. 189, 190 (1994).
157. Id. at 194.
158. Id.
159. Sinha, supra note 104, at 59.
160. Id.
161. Id. at 52.
162. Id. at 53.
163. Id. at 53.
164. BAXI, supra note 9, at 18.
165. Ehsan Naraghi, The Republic's Citizens of Honor, in 1789: An Idea That Changed the World, in THE UNESCO COURIER, supra note 100, at 13, 13.
166. Id. at 14.
167. Id. at 12.
168. MARC AGI, DE L'IDIE D'UNIVERSALITI COMME FOUNDATRICE DU CONCEPT DES DROITS DE L'HOMME D'APRÈS LA VIE ET L'OEUVRE DE RENÉ CASSIN 190 (1980) (quoting recording of May 1948 of the voice of René Cassin) (translation author's). Later it was Cassin who proposed to the General Assembly that the Declaration be called "universal" rather than "international. Id. at 214. See also RENÉ CASSIN, LA PENSÉE ET L'ACTION 114 (1972) (translation author's).
169. MARC AGI, DE L'IDIE D'UNIVERSALITI COMME FOUNDATRICE DU CONCEPT DES DROITS DE L'HOMME D'APRÈS LA VIE ET L'OEUVRE DE RENÉ CASSIN 190 (1980) (quoting recording of May 1948 of the voice of René Cassin) (translation author's). Later it was Cassin who proposed to the General Assembly that the Declaration be called "universal" rather than "international. Id. at 214. See also RENÉ CASSIN, LA PENSÉE ET L'ACTION 114 (1972) (translation author's).
170. CASSESE supra note 98, at 46. For the title of the present article, the British "five thousand million" has been translated into the American "five billion." Cassese's "decalogue" is not taken literally, the obvious metaphor being the enduring moral code of the Ten Commandments rather than the number of moral precepts. The title of this article refers to six billion persons because the world population is expected to reach that figure by 1999. See UNITED NATIONS CENTRE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENTS, AN URBANIZING WORLD: GLOBAL REPORT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 1996 at 440, Tbl. 1.
171. CASSESE supra note 98, at 46. For the title of the present article, the British "five thousand million" has been translated into the American "five billion." Cassese's "decalogue" is not taken literally, the obvious metaphor being the enduring moral code of the Ten Commandments rather than the number of moral precepts. The title of this article refers to six billion persons because the world population is expected to reach that figure by 1999. See UNITED NATIONS CENTRE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENTS, AN URBANIZING WORLD: GLOBAL REPORT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 1996 at 440, Tbl. 1.
172. JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG-ACTON, LECTURES ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 107 (John Neville Figgis & Reginald Vere Laurence eds., 1910). Palmer is more positive regarding the style of the 1789 Declaration, which, compared to the American ones "was more condensed, systematic, and abstract as a statement of public law. It gave sharper definition to the conception of citizenship, individual freedom, and rightful public authority." R.R. PALMER, THE AGE OF THE DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONS: A POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE AND AMERICA, 1760-1800, at 487 (1959).
173. JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG-ACTON, LECTURES ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 107 (John Neville Figgis & Reginald Vere Laurence eds., 1910). Palmer is more positive regarding the style of the 1789 Declaration, which, compared to the American ones "was more condensed, systematic, and abstract as a statement of public law. It gave sharper definition to the conception of citizenship, individual freedom, and rightful public authority." R.R. PALMER, THE AGE OF THE DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONS: A POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE AND AMERICA, 1760-1800, at 487 (1959).
174. Id. Sir Hersch Lauterpacht's paraphrase of this quotation, adding the word "contused, is used in the title of the present article because it captures Acton's meaning, although it is not a direct quotation. See infra note 241 and accompanying text.
175. CASSESE, supra note 98, at 45.
176. Fayard et al., supra note 21, at 50 (citing Mounier) (translation author's).
177. See JAUME, supra note 2, at 185. It should also be noted that the Constitution of 1791 contains a Title I on "Fundamental Provisons Recognized by the Constitution" which enumerates several "natural and civil rights" (with a certain confusion regarding the hierarchy of norms), additional to those in the Declaration, including equality of access to employment, equality of taxation in proportion to means; equality in punishment for offenses; freedom of movement, of expression, and of assembly; the right to petitioning authorities; as well as inviolability of property, the right to elect ministers of religious sects, and two social rights: public relief for abandoned children, infirm paupers and persons who have not found work; and free public basic education. Id. at 186-88; ANDERSON, supra note 2, at 61-63.
178. See RIALS, supra note 2, at 357.
179. Hunt, supra note 14, at 15.
180. René Cassin, Preface to VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 4 (translation author's).
181. See RIALS, supra note 2, at 115-21.
182. See VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 40-41.
183. Id. at 40.
184. HUMPHREY, supra note 44, at 32.
185. Id. (noting that "[t]he documentation which the Secretariat brought together ex post facto in support of my draft included texts extracted from the constitutions of many countries. But I did not have this before me when I prepared my draft.").
186. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 332.
187. The Chinese member, P.C. Chang, professed adherence to Confucianism. See supra text accompanying note 47.
188. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 32-38.
189. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 79-80.
190. Id.
191. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 1. See Laura Reanda, The Commission on the Status of Women, THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL 265, 266 (Philp Alston ed., 1992) (citing the Commission on the Status of Women's push for the inclusion of nondiscriminatory language, on the basis of sex, in the UDHR).
192. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 80. See Morsink, supra note 42, at 313.
193. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 80. See Morsink, supra note 42, at 313.
194. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 80. See Morsink, supra note 42, at 313.
195. VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 80. See Morsink, supra note 42, at 313.
196. See RIALS, supra 2, at 217-23 (discussing the intriguing similarity that may be found in the National Assembly's debates over Article 1 of the French Declaration on 20 August 1789).
197. See VERDOODT, supra note 95, at 120 n.6.
198. See id. at 126 n.3.
199. See id. at 131 n.4.
200. See id. at 132 n.6.
201. See id. at 171 n.7.
202. See id. at 177 n.7.
203. See id. at 184 n.5, 186 n. 17.
204. See id. at 199 n.6, 200 n.10.
205. See id. at 264 n.11.
206. See id. at 304.
207. RIALS, supra note 2, at 15.
208. See MARCEL GAUCHET, LA RÉVOLUTION DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (1989).
209. See JAUME, supra note 135.
210. See Philip Alston, The Commission on Human Rights, in THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL, supra note 149, at 126, 126-32. The first item on the mandate of the Commission on Human Rights involved "formulation of an international bill of rights," which began with the UDHR and continued with the drafting of the ICCPR and the ICESCR. Id. at 127.
211. See id.
212. HABERMAS, supra note 19, at 83 ("Liberty consists in the ability to do whatever does not harm another; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to other members of society the enjoyment of the same rights.").
213. See FURET ET AL., supra note 102, at 257.
214. See id. at 258.
215. Ozouf co-authored Dictionnaire Critique (FURET ET AL., supra note 102) with Furet and others.
216. FURET ET AL., supra note 102, at 259.
217. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 1 ("Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility).
218. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 1 ("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.").
219. Declaration of 1793, supra note 2, art. 2. The other three are liberty, security, and property.
220. Id. art. 3.
221. Id. art. 29.
222. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 2.
223. GAUCHET, supra note 163, at 157 n.1.
224. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 1.
225. FURET ET AL., supra note 102, at 148 (quoting Ozouf).
226. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
227. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
228. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
229. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
230. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
231. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
232. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
233. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women
234. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
235. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
236. See OLYMPE DE GOUGE, THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1791); MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (1792); JULES MICHELET, THE WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1855); ROBERT MCNAIR WILSON, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1936); MADELYN GUTWIRTH, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODDESSES: WOMEN AND REPRESENTATION IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY ERA (1992); MARILYN YALON, BLOOD SISTERS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN WOMEN'S MEMORY (1993); LITERATE WOMEN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 (Catherine R. Montfort ed., 1994); JOAN WALLACH SCOTT, ONLY PARADOXES TO OFFER: FRENCH FEMINISTS AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (1996); LINDA KELLY, WOMEN OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1987); CANDICE PROCTOR, WOMEN, EQUALITY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1990). These are among the sources of abundant literature on the role of women in the French Revolution. Although women participated actively in the Revolution very few leaders, besides Condorcet, argued for legal equality, and in fact women did not win the right to vote in France until 1945. See PALMER & COLTON, supra note 16, at 371-72.
237. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 3.
238. Id. art. 6.
239. Id. art. 2. See also infra notes 205 and 206.
240. Article 1 (1) of both the ICCPR and the ICESCR reads: "All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development." ICCPR supra note 84, art. 1; ICESCR, supra note 84, art. 1. Paragraphs 2 and 3 of the article refer to permanent sovereignty over natural resources and non-self-governing and trust territories, respeclively.
241. See Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762), in THE SOCIAL CONTRACT AND DISCOURSES 191 (G.D.H. Cole trans., 1913). Rousseau reduces the clauses of the social contract to the total alienation of each associate, together with all his rights, to the whole community. Id. What man loses by the social contact is his natural liberty and an unlimited right to everything he tries to get and succeeds in getting; what he gains is civil liberty and the proprietorship of all he possesses. If we are to avoid mistake in weighing one against the other, we must clearly distinguish natural liberty, which is bounded only by the strength of the individual, from civil liberty, which is limited by the general will; and possession, which is merely the effect of force or the rights of he first occupier, from property, which can be founded only on a positive title . . . obedience to the law which we prescribe to ourselves is liberty." Id. at 15, 19 (emphasis added).
242. See RIALS, supra note 2, at 258-62.
243. See FURET ET AL., supra note 102, at 293.
244. See ANDERSON supra note 2, at 58.
245. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 21, ¶ 3. The compatibility of constitutional monarchy with human rights is assumed by the acceptance of constitutional monarchies in numerous democracies, such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and Belgium.
246. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 2.
247. UDHR, supra note 1, pmbl.
248. Declaration of 1793, supra note 2.
249. UDHR, supra note 1, pmbl.
250. RIALS, supra note 2, at 253, 373-76.
251. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 32-38 (reviewing the role of the socialist countries during the drafting of the UDHR).
252. See Hunt, supra note 14, at 1.
253. The distinction between positive and negative can be confusing here. As noted above, in the eighteenth century, participation in public life was called "positive liberty," and "negative liberty" refered to individual rights. Today, the terms positive and negative qualify rights that require action or abstention by the state.
254. See Quincy Wright, Relationship Between Different Categories of Human Rights, in HUMAN RIGHTS: COMMENTS AND INTERPRETITIONS 143, 147 (UNESCO ed., Greenwood Press 1973) (1949). Wright brilliantly argued this distribution in his contribution to a collection of philosophical essays produced by UNESCO to assist the drafters of the UDHR. 200. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 15.
255. Declaration of 1793, supra note 2, arts. 24, 50.
256. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ¶ 2 (1776).
257. Id.
258. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, art. 9.
259. 205: See JEAN-PIERRE BIONDI & FRANÇOIS, ZUCCARELLI, 16 PLUVIO̊SE AN II. LES COLONIES DE LA RÉVOLUTION 26 (1989) (translation author's).
260. See RESTATEMENT OF THE FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW OF THE UNITED STATES §§ 331(2), 702 (1987)
261. Freedom of movement did merit recognition in Article VIII of Sieyès's first draft, in Article VII of Target's draft, and in Article XXII of Mounier's draft on behalf of the first constitutional committee. See RIALS, supra note 2, at 603, 609, 614.
262. Declaration of 1789, supra note 2, arts. 7, 9.
263. Abbé Sieyès, Reconnaissance et Exposition Raisonnée Des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, reprinted in RIALS, supra note 2, at 592, 593-94 (translation author's).
264. Id. at 595. This theory suggests recent work by Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. See Martha C. Nussbaum, Symposium, Human Rights on the Eve of the Next Century: Beyond Vienna & Beijing: Human Rights Theory: Capabilities and Human Rights, 66 FORDHAM L. REV. 273 (1997); Amartya Sen, Equality of What?, 1 THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES 195 (Sterling M. McMurrin ed., 1980), reprinted in AMARTYA SEN, CHOICE, WELFARE AND MEASUREMENT 353 (1982).
265. Id. at 595. This theory suggests recent work by Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. See Martha C. Nussbaum, Symposium, Human Rights on the Eve of the Next Century: Beyond Vienna & Beijing: Human Rights Theory: Capabilities and Human Rights, 66 FORDHAM L. REV. 273 (1997); Amartya Sen, Equality of What?, 1 THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES 195 (Sterling M. McMurrin ed., 1980), reprinted in AMARTYA SEN, CHOICE, WELFARE AND MEASUREMENT 353 (1982).
266. Id. at 595. This theory suggests recent work by Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. See Martha C. Nussbaum, Symposium, Human Rights on the Eve of the Next Century: Beyond Vienna & Beijing: Human Rights Theory: Capabilities and Human Rights, 66 FORDHAM L. REV. 273 (1997); Amartya Sen, Equality of What?, 1 THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES 195 (Sterling M. McMurrin ed., 1980), reprinted in AMARTYA SEN, CHOICE, WELFARE AND MEASUREMENT 353 (1982).
267. Id. at 595. This theory suggests recent work by Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. See Martha C. Nussbaum, Symposium, Human Rights on the Eve of the Next Century: Beyond Vienna & Beijing: Human Rights Theory: Capabilities and Human Rights, 66 FORDHAM L. REV. 273 (1997); Amartya Sen, Equality of What?, 1 THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES 195 (Sterling M. McMurrin ed., 1980), reprinted in AMARTYA SEN, CHOICE, WELFARE AND MEASUREMENT 353 (1982).
268. Id. at 605 (art. XXV).
269. Id. at 619 (second draft declaration by Abbé Sieyès, art. XXVII).
270. RIALS, supra note 2, at 550-55 (translation author's).
271. Id. (translation author's).
272. Id. at 551 (translation author's).
273. Id.
274. Id.
275. Id.
276. Id. at 555 (translation author's).
277. Id. (translation author's).
278. UDHR, supra note 1, pmbl.
279. United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education and Public Information Activities in the Field of Human Rights, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., U.N. Doc. A/Res/51/104, pmbl. (1997).
280. FURET ET AL., supra note 102, at 121-22 (translation author's).
281. Declaration of 1793, supra note 2, art. 21.
282. Abbé Sieyès, supra note 209, at 593-94 (translation author's).
283. See Declaration of 1793, supra note 2, art. 23.
284. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 30. Cassese pointed out, drawing on leading historians, that Roosevelt meant by freedom from want - an expression he borrowed from a journalist-the elimination of certain cultural and commercial barriers between nations, rather than its current meaning of realization of economic, social and cultural rights. This interpretation is borne out by the passage in Roosevelt's speech where he explained that "freedom from want . . . translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure for every nation a healthy peace-time life tor its inhabitants everywhere in the world," supports this interpretation. FRANK NEWMAN & DAVID WEISSBRODT, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: LAW, POLICY, AND PROCESS 49 (2d ed. 1996) (quoting Franklin D. Roosevelt, Four Freedoms Speech, 87-1 CONG. REC. 44, 46-47 (1941 )).
285. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 30. Cassese pointed out, drawing on leading historians, that Roosevelt meant by freedom from want - an expression he borrowed from a journalist-the elimination of certain cultural and commercial barriers between nations, rather than its current meaning of realization of economic, social and cultural rights. This interpretation is borne out by the passage in Roosevelt's speech where he explained that "freedom from want . . . translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure for every nation a healthy peace-time life tor its inhabitants everywhere in the world," supports this interpretation. FRANK NEWMAN & DAVID WEISSBRODT, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: LAW, POLICY, AND PROCESS 49 (2d ed. 1996) (quoting Franklin D. Roosevelt, Four Freedoms Speech, 87-1 CONG. REC. 44, 46-47 (1941 )).
286. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 30. Cassese pointed out, drawing on leading historians, that Roosevelt meant by freedom from want - an expression he borrowed from a journalist-the elimination of certain cultural and commercial barriers between nations, rather than its current meaning of realization of economic, social and cultural rights. This interpretation is borne out by the passage in Roosevelt's speech where he explained that "freedom from want . . . translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure for every nation a healthy peace-time life tor its inhabitants everywhere in the world," supports this interpretation. FRANK NEWMAN & DAVID WEISSBRODT, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: LAW, POLICY, AND PROCESS 49 (2d ed. 1996) (quoting Franklin D. Roosevelt, Four Freedoms Speech, 87-1 CONG. REC. 44, 46-47 (1941 )).
287. 1942 International Bill of Rights (proposed by the United States). It is also worth recalling that President Roosevelt, in his State of the Union Message ot 1944, said that: We have come to a clear realization of the fact that true individual freedom cannot exist without economic security and independence. "Necessitous men are not freemen." People who are hungry and out of a job are the stuff of which dictatorship are made. In our day these economic truths have become accepted as self-evident. We have accepted, so to speak, a second Bill of Rights under which a new basis of security and prosperity can be established for all - regardless of station, race, or creed. NEWMAN & WEISSBRODT, supra note 228, at 50 (quoting Franklin D. Roosevelt, State of the Union Address, 90-1 CONG. REC. 55, 57 (1944)). The President then enumerated eight rights belonging to this "economic bill of rights."
288. 1942 International Bill of Rights (proposed by the United States). It is also worth recalling that President Roosevelt, in his State of the Union Message ot 1944, said that: We have come to a clear realization of the fact that true individual freedom cannot exist without economic security and independence. "Necessitous men are not freemen." People who are hungry and out of a job are the stuff of which dictatorship are made. In our day these economic truths have become accepted as self-evident. We have accepted, so to speak, a second Bill of Rights under which a new basis of security and prosperity can be established for all - regardless of station, race, or creed. NEWMAN & WEISSBRODT, supra note 228, at 50 (quoting Franklin D. Roosevelt, State of the Union Address, 90-1 CONG. REC. 55, 57 (1944)). The President then enumerated eight rights belonging to this "economic bill of rights."
289. FDR's FIRESIDE CHATS 292-93 (Russell D. Buhite & David W. Levy eds., 1992).
290. William Korey, Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in ELEANOR ROOSEVELT: HER DAY: A PERSONAL ALBUM 21 (A. David Gurewitsch ed., 1973).
291. UDHR supra note 1, art. 17 ("Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.").
292. HUMPHREY, supra note 44, at 44.
293. See International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted 21 Dec. 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195, art. 5(d)(v) (entered into force 4 Jan. 1969), reprinted in 5 I.L.M. 352 (1966); African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5, art. 14 (1981), (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982); American Convention on Human Rights, signed 22 Nov. 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, O.A.S. Off. Rec OEA/Ser.L/V/II.23, doc. 21, rev. 6, art. 21 (1979) (entered into force 18 July 1978), reprinted in 9 I.L.M. 673 (1970); Protocol I Additional to the European Convention of 3 Sept. 1953, adopted 20 Mar. 1953, U.N.T.S. 262, Europ. T.S. No. 9 (entered into force 18 May 1954).
294. See International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted 21 Dec. 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195, art. 5(d)(v) (entered into force 4 Jan. 1969), reprinted in 5 I.L.M. 352 (1966); African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5, art. 14 (1981), (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982); American Convention on Human Rights, signed 22 Nov. 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, O.A.S. Off. Rec OEA/Ser.L/V/II.23, doc. 21, rev. 6, art. 21 (1979) (entered into force 18 July 1978), reprinted in 9 I.L.M. 673 (1970); Protocol I Additional to the European Convention of 3 Sept. 1953, adopted 20 Mar. 1953, U.N.T.S. 262, Europ. T.S. No. 9 (entered into force 18 May 1954).
295. See International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted 21 Dec. 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195, art. 5(d)(v) (entered into force 4 Jan. 1969), reprinted in 5 I.L.M. 352 (1966); African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5, art. 14 (1981), (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982); American Convention on Human Rights, signed 22 Nov. 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, O.A.S. Off. Rec OEA/Ser.L/V/II.23, doc. 21, rev. 6, art. 21 (1979) (entered into force 18 July 1978), reprinted in 9 I.L.M. 673 (1970); Protocol I Additional to the European Convention of 3 Sept. 1953, adopted 20 Mar. 1953, U.N.T.S. 262, Europ. T.S. No. 9 (entered into force 18 May 1954).
296. See International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted 21 Dec. 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195, art. 5(d)(v) (entered into force 4 Jan. 1969), reprinted in 5 I.L.M. 352 (1966); African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3/Rev.5, art. 14 (1981), (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982); American Convention on Human Rights, signed 22 Nov. 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, O.A.S. Off. Rec OEA/Ser.L/V/II.23, doc. 21, rev. 6, art. 21 (1979) (entered into force 18 July 1978), reprinted in 9 I.L.M. 673 (1970); Protocol I Additional to the European Convention of 3 Sept. 1953, adopted 20 Mar. 1953, U.N.T.S. 262, Europ. T.S. No. 9 (entered into force 18 May 1954).
297. The 1958 Constitution of France proclaims, in its preamble, the attachment ot the French people to human rights as defined in the Declaration of 1789. LA CONSTITUTION pmbl. (Fr.). Rials noted that the version of the Declaration printed in the Journal official is actually that of 1791, which contains five editorial modifications. See RIALS, supra note 2, at 266-71.
298. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: Final Act (Helsinki Accord), adopted 1 Aug. 1975, 73 DEP'T STATE BULL. 323, reprinted in 14 I.L.M. 1292 (1975).
299. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: Final Act (Helsinki Accord), adopted 1 Aug. 1975, 73 DEP'T STATE BULL. 323, reprinted in 14 I.L.M. 1292 (1975).
300. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: Charter of Paris, adopted 21 Nov. 1991, reprinted in 30 I.L.M. 190 (1991).
301. China Wriggling Free, or Hooked?, THE ECONOMIST, 21 Mar. 1998, at 20.
302. See CASSESE, supra note 98, at 40.
303. UDHR, supra note 1, art. 28.
304. RIALS, supra note 2, at 333.
305. LAUTERPACHT, supra note 63, at 52.
306. Adamantia Pollis & Peter Schwab, Human Rights: A Western Construct With Limited Applicability, in HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURAL AND IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 1 13, 14 (Adamantia Pollis & Peter Schwab eds., 1979). In a more recent reflection on these arguments for cultural relativism, Adamantia Pollis, drawing on examples from Japan East Asia, and Africa focused on the role of the state in using cultural distinctiveness to justify positions hostile to human rights by reference to these rights as Western and alien, while the state at the same time violates traditional values through the perpetration of repressive actions. Adamantia Pollis, supra note 103.
307. Rhoda E. Howard & Jack Donnelly, Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Political Regimes, 80 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 801, 802 (1986).
308. Id. at 806.
309. See Wright, supra note 199. Created primarily through a survey of the leading thinkers of the day in 1947, UNESCO subsequently edited and published the text in several languages.
310. RIALS, supra note 2, at 396-97.
311. HABERMAS, supra note 19, at 465.
312. CASSESE, supra note 98, at 29.
313. See id. at 46.