Trophobiosis between formicidae and hemiptera (sternorrhyncha and auchenorrhyncha): An overview

Neotropical Entomology

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 501-516

  Delabie, Jacques H C ^a,b  

^a Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau   (Brazil)

^b DEPARTAMENTO DE CIÊNCIAS BIOLÓGICAS   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Coevolution; Insect insect relationships; Mutualism; Plant insect relationships

Indexed keywords

EID: 0011168256     PISSN: 1519556X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/s1519-566x2001000400001     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Adenuga, A.O. 1975. Mutualistic association between ants and some Homoptera - its significance in cocoa production. Psyche 82: 24-29.
2. Adenuga, A.O. & K. Adeboyeku. 1987. Notes on distribution of ant-Homoptera interaction on selected crop plants. Insect Sci. Applic. 8: 239-243.
3. Ammar, E.-D. 1985. Internal morphology of leafhoppers and planthoppers, 127-162. In L.R. Nault & J.G. Rodriguez (eds.), The leafhoppers and planthoppers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 500p.
4. Auclair, J. 1963. Aphid feeding and nutrition. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 8: 439-490.
5. Bastien D. 1996. L'association Philodendrons-Fourmis-Aleurodes. Une étude en Guyane française. D.E.A. Ecologie générale et production végétale, Université Paris 6, I.N.A. Paris-Grignon, 37p.
6. Beattie, A.J. 1985. The evolutionary ecology of ant-plant mutualisms. Cambridge, University Press, 182p.
7. Ben-Dov, Y. 1978. Andaspis formicarum n.sp. (Homoptera, Diaspididae) associated with a species of Melissotarsus (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in South Africa. Insectes Soc. 25: 315-321.
8. Ben-Dov, Y. 1990. Relationships with ants, p. 339-343, In D. Rosen (ed.). Armored scale insects - their biology, natural enemies and control, vol. A, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 384p.
9. Ben-Dov, Y. & D. Matile-Ferreo. 1983. On the association of ants, genus Melissotarsus (Formicidae), with armoured scale insects (Diaspididae) in Africa. Verh. SIEEC X. Budapest, 378-380.
10. Bigger, M. 1993. Ant-homopteran interactions in a tropical ecosystem. Description of an experiment on cocoa in Ghana. Bull. Entomol. Res. 83: 474-505.
11. Blüthgen, N., M. Verhaagh, W. Goitia, K. Jaffé, W. Morawetz & W. Barthlott. 2000. How plants shape the ant community in the Amazonian rainforest canopy: the key role of extrafloral nectarines and homopteran honeydew. Oecologia 125: 229-240.
12. Bourgoin, T. 1985. Une association méconnue : les Tettigometridae (Hemiptera : Fulgoromorpha) et les fourmis (Hymenoptera : Formicidae). Entomol. Gallica 1: 233-234.
13. Bristow, C.M. 1983. Treehoppers transfer parental care to ants: a new benefit of mutualism. Science 20: 532-533.
14. Bristow, C.M. 1991a. Are ant-aphid associations a tritrophic interaction?, 104-119. Oleander aphids and argentine ants. Oecologia 87: 514-521.
15. Bristow, C.M. 1991b. Why are so few aphids ant-tended? In: C.R. Huxley & D.F. Cutler (eds), Ant-plant interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 601p.
16. Brown, R.L. 1976. Behavioral observations on Aethalion reticulatum (Hem., Aethalionidae) and associated ants. Insectes Soc. 23: 99-108.
17. Buckley, R.C. 1987a. Interactions involving plants, homoptera, and ants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8: 111-135.
18. Buckley, R.C. 1987b. Ant-plant-homopteran interactions. Adv. Ecol. Res. 16: 53-85.
19. Buckley, R.C. 1990. Ants protect tropical Homoptera against nocturnal spider predation. Biotropica 22: 207-209.
20. Buckley, R. & P. Gullan. 1991. More aggressive ant species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) provide better protection for soft scales and mealybugs (Homoptera: Coccidae, Pseudococcidae). Biotropica 23: 282-286.
21. Buckley, R., P. Gullan, M.J. Fletcher & R.W. Taylor. 1990. New ant homopteran interactions from tropical Australia. Aust. Entomol. Mag. 17: 57-60.
22. Bullington, S.W. & M. Kosztarab, 1985. Revision of the family Kermesidae (Homoptera) in the Nearctic Region based on adult and third instar females. Bul., Virginia Polytech. Inst. St. Univ. 85: 1-118.
23. Bünzli, G.H. 1935. Untersuchungen über coccidophile Ameisen aus den Kaffeefeldern von Surinam. Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Ges. 16: 453-593.
24. th Conf. Western African Cocoa Entomologists. Legon, Ghana, 1974, 67-71.
25. Campbell, C.A.M. 1984. The influence of overhead shade and fertilizers on the Homoptera of mature Upper-Amazon coca trees in Ghana. Bull. Entomol. Res. 74: 163-174.
26. Campbell, C.A.M. 1994. Homoptera associated with the ants Crematogaster clariventris, Pheidole meacephala and Tetramorium aculeatum (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on cocoa in Ghana. Bull. Entomol. Res. 84: 313-318.
27. Campos, L.A. de O. & Morais, H.C. 1986. Transporte de homópteros por fêmeas de formigas do gênero Acropyga (Formicinae) em Viçosa, MG. Anais do VII Encontro de Mirmecologia do Estado de São Paulo, F.H. Caetano ed. Unesp-Fapesp-CNPq, 52-53.
28. Carroll, C.R. & D.H. Janzen. 1973. Ecology of foraging by ants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Systematics 4: 231-257.
29. nd edition). John Wiley & Sons, New York, 705p.
30. Carver, M., G.F. Gross & T.E. Woodward. 1991. 30-Hemiptera, p. 429-515, CSIRO. The insects of Australia. Cornell Univerity Press, Ithaca, New York, 542p.
31. Castro, P.R.C. 1975. Mutualismo entre Trigona spinipes (Fabricius, 1793) e Aethalion reticulatum (L. 1767) em Cajanus indicus Spreng. na presença de Camponotus spp. Ci. Cult. 27: 537-539.
32. Collins, L. & J.K. Scott. 1982. Interaction of ants, predators and the scale insect, Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi, on Carpobrotus edulis, an exotic plant naturalized in western Australia. Aust. Entomol. Mag. 8: 73-78.
33. Conti, M. 1985. Transmission of plant viruses by leafhoppers and planthoppers, p. 289-307. In L.R. Nault & J.G. Rodriguez (eds.), The leafhoppers and planthoppers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 500p.
34. Cushman, J.H. & J.F. Addicott. 1991. Conditional interactions in ant-plant-herbivore mutualisms, p. 92-103. In C.R. Huxley & D.F. Cutler (eds), Ant-plant interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 601p.
35. Cushman, J.H. & T.G. Whitham. 1989. Conditional mutualism in a membracid-ant association: temporal, age-specific, and densitu-dependent effects. Ecology 70: 1040-1047.
36. Dejean, A., B. Nkongmeneck, B. Corbara & C. Djieto-Lordon. 1991. Impact des fourmis arboricoles sur une pullulation d'Achaea catocaloides (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) dans des plantations de cacaoyers du Cameroun. Acta Oecologica 12: 471-488.
37. Dejean, A. & D. Matile-Ferrero. 1996. How a ground-dwelling forest ant species favors the proliferation of an endemic scale insect (Hymenoptera: Formicidae; Homoptera: Stictococcidae). Sociobiology 28: 183-195.
38. Dejean, A., M. Gibernau & T. Bourgoin. 2000a. A new case of trophobiosis between ants and Heteroptera. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sciences de la Vie 323: 447-454.
39. Dejean, A., P.R. Ngnegueu & T. Bourgoin. 1996. Trophobiosis between ants and Peregrinus maidis (Hemiptera, Fulgoromorpha, Delphacidae). Sociobiology 28: 111-120.
40. Dejean, A. & R. Mony. 1991. Attaques d'arbres fruitiers tropicaux par les fourmis du genre Melissotarsus (Emery) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) associées aux Homoptères Diaspididae. Actes Coll. Insectes Soc. 7: 179-187.
41. Dejean, A. & T. Bourgoin. 1998. Relationships between ants (Hymenoptera : Formicidae) and Euphyonarthex phyllostoma (Hemiptera : Tettigometridae). Sociobiology 32: 91-100.
42. Dejean, A., T. Bourgoin & J. Orivel. 2000b. Ant defense of Euphyonarthex phyllostoma (Homoptera : Tettigometridae) during trophobiotic associations. Biotropica 32: 112-119.
43. Dejean, A., T. Bourgoin & M. Gibernau. 1997. Ant species that protect figs against other ants: result of territoriality induced by a mutualistic homopteran. Ecoscience 4:446-453.
44. Delabie, J.H.C. 1990. The ant problems of cocoa farms in Brazil, p. 555-569. In R.K. Vander Meer, K. Jaffe & A. Cedeño (eds.), Applied Myrmecology: A world perspective, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA, 741p.
45. Delabie, J.H.C., A.M. Encarnação & I.C. Maurício. 1994. Relations between the little fire ant, Wasmannia auropunctata, and its associated mealybug, Planococcus citri, in Brazilian cocoa farms, p. 91-103. In DF Williams (ed.), Exotic ants: biology, impact and control of introduced species, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado (U.S.A.), 333p.
46. Delabie, J.H.C., J.E. Mantovani & I.C. Mauricio. 1990. Observações sobre a biologia de duas espécies de Acropyga (Formicidae, Formicinae, Plagiolepidini) associadas a rizosfera do cacaueiro. Rev. Brasil. Biol. 51: 185-192.
47. Delage-Darchen, B., D. Matile-Ferrero & A.S. Balachowsky. 1972. Sur un cas aberrant de symbiose cochenilles x fourmis. C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris, série D, 275: 2359-2361.
48. DeVries, P.J. 1991. Evolutionary and ecological patterns in myrmecophilous riodinid butterflies, p. 143-156. In C.R. Huxley & D.F. Cutler (eds), Ant-plant interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 601p.
49. Dietrich, C.H. & S.H. McKamey. 1990. Three new idiocerine leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) from Guyana with notes on ant-mutualism and subsociality. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 92: 214-223.
50. Dolling, W.R. 1991. The Hemiptera. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 274p.
51. Dorow, W.H.O. & U. Maschwitz. 1990. The arachne-group of Polyrhachis (Formicidae, Formicinae): weaver ants cultivating Homoptera on bamboo. Insectes Soc. 37: 73-89.
52. Douglas, A.E. 1998. Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: aphids and their symbiotic bacteria Buchnera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43:17-37.
53. Dufour, B. 1991. Place et importance des différentes espèces d'insectes dans l'écologie du CSSV (Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus) au Togo. Café Cacao Thé 35: 197-204.
54. Dumpert, K., U. Maschwitz, W. Nassig & W. Dorow. 1989. Camponotus (Karavaievia) sp.n. and C. (K.) montanus sp.n., two weaver ant species from Malaysia (Formicidae: Formicinae). Zool. Beitr. N.F. 32: 217-231.
55. Evans, H.C. 1963. The phylogeny of the Homoptera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 8: 77-94.
56. Evans, H.C. & D. Leston. 1971. A Ponerine ant (Hym., Formicidae) associated with Homoptera on cocoa in Ghana. Bull. Entomol. Res. 61: 357-362.
57. Fisher, B.L. & H.G. Robertson. 1999. Silk production by adult workers of the ant Melissotarsus emeryi (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in South African fynbos. Insectes Soc. 46: 78-83.
58. Flanders, S.E. 1957. The complete interdependence of an ant and a coccid. Ecology 38: 535-536.
59. Flatt, T. & W.W. Weisser. 2000. The effects of mutualistic ants on aphid life history traits. Ecology 81: 3522-3529.
60. Floate, K.D. & T.G. Whitham. 1994. Aphid-ant interaction reduces chrysomelid herbivory in a cottonwood hybrid zone. Oecologia 97: 215-221.
61. Fowler, H.G., L.C. Forti, C.R.F. Brandão, J.H.C. Delabie & H.L. Vasconcelos. 1991. Ecologia nutricional de formigas, p. 131-223. In A.R. Panizzi e J.R.P. Parra (eds.), Ecologia nutricional de insetos e suas implicações no manejo de pragas, Editora Manole e CNPq, São Paulo, 359p.
62. Gaume, L., D. Matile-Ferrero & D. McKey. 2000. Colony foundation and acquisition of coccoid trophobionts by Aphomomyrmex afer (Formicinae): co-dispersal of queens and phoretic mealybugs in an ant-plant-homopteran mutualism? Insectes Soc. 47: 84-91.
63. Gaume, L., D. McKey & S. Terrin. 1998. Ant-homopteran mutualism: how the third partner affects the interaction between a plant-specialist ant and its myrmecophyte host. Proc. R. Soc. London B, 265: 569-575.
64. Gibernau, M. & A. Dejean. 2001. Ant protection of a Heteropteran trophobiont against a parasitoid wasp. Oecologia 126: 53-57.
65. González-Hernández, H., N.J. Reimer & M.W. Johnson. 1999. Survey of the natural enemies of Dysmicoccus mealybugs on pineapple in Hawai. BioControl 44: 47-58.
66. Gullan, P.J. 1997. Relationships with ants, p. 351-377. In Y. Ben-Dov & C.J. Hodgson (eds.), Soft scale insects - their biology, natural enemies and control, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.
67. Gullan, P.J. & M. Kosztarab. 1997. Adaptations in scale insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 42: 23-50.
68. Gullan, P.J., R.C. Buckley & P.S. Ward. 1993. Ant-tended scale insects (Hemiptera: Cocccidae: Myzolecanium) within lowland rain forest trees in Papua New Guinea. J. Trop. Ecol. 9: 81-91.
69. Hackman, R. & V.M. Trikojus. 1952. The composition of the honeydew excreted by Australian coccids of the genus Ceroplastes. Biochem. J. 51: 653-656.
70. Hayes, W.P. 1920. Solenopsis modesta Say (Hym.): a biological study. Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State Agriculture College, Manhattan, Kansas, Techn. Bull. 7, 54p.
71. Heckroth, H.-P., B. Fiala, P.J. Gulan, A.H.J. Idris & U. Maschwitz. 1998. The soft scale (Coccidae) associates of Malaysian ant-plants. J. Trop. Ecol. 14: 427-443.
72. Hölldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson. 1990. The ants. The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 732p.
73. Houk, E.J. & G.W. Griffiths. 1980. Intracellular symbiotes of the Homoptera. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 25: 161-187.
74. Huang, H.T. & P. Yang. 1987. The ancient cultured citrus ant - a tropical ant used to control insect pests in southern China. Biosci. 37: 665-671.
75. Jolivet, P. 1996. Ants and plants, an example of coevolution (enlarged edition). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, 303p.
76. Johnson, C., D. Agosti, J.H. Delabie, K. Dumpert, D.J. Williams, M. von Tschirnhaus & U. Maschwitz. 2001. Acropyga and Azteca ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 million years of intimate symbiosis. Am. Mus. Novitates 3335: 18p.
77. Karasev, A.V. 2000. Genetic diversity and evolution of closteroviruses. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 38: 293-324.
78. Kirkpatrick, T.W. 1952. Notes no minor insect pests of cacao in Trinidad. A report of cacao research, The Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, St Augustine, Trinidad, B.W.I., 62-71.
79. Klein, R.W, D. Kovac, A. Schellerich & U. Machwitz. 1992. Mealybug-carrying by swarming queens of a Southeast Asian bamboo-inhabiting ant. Naturwissenschaften 79: 422-423.
80. Kosztarab, M. 1987. Everything unique or unusual about scale insects (Homoptera : Coccoidae). Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 33: 215-220.
81. Lambdin, P. & M. Kosztarab. 1988. Psoraleococcus browni: a new species of pit scale from Papua New Guinea (Homoptera : Coccoidea : Lecanodiaspididae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 81: 724-727.
82. Larsen, K.J., F.E. Vega, G. Moya-Raygoza & L.R. Nault. 1991. Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) associated with the leafhopper Dalbulus quinquenotatus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) on gamagrasses in Mexico. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 84:498-501.
83. Larsen, K.J., S.E. Heady & L.R. Nault. 1992. Influence of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on honeydew excretion and escape behaviors in a myrmecophile, Dalbulus quinquenotatus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), and its congeners. J. Insect Behav. 5: 109-122.
84. Liefke, C., W.H.O. Dorow, B. Hölldobler & U. Maschwitz. 1998. Nesting and food resources of syntopic species of the ant genus Polyrhachis (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in West-Malaysia. Insectes Soc. 45: 411-425.
85. Liepert, C. & K. Dettner. 1993. Recognition of aphid parasitoids by honeydew-collecting ants: the role of cuticular lipids in a chemical mimicry system. J. Chem. Ecol. 19: 2143-2153.
86. Majer, J.D. 1993. Comparison of the arboreal ant mosaic in Ghana, Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Australia - its structure and influence on arthropod diversity, 115-141. In J. LaSalle & I.D. Gault (eds.), Hymenoptera and biodiversity, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 348p.
87. Malsch, A.K.F., E. Kaufmann, H.-P. Heckroth, D.J. Williams, M. Maryati & U. Maschwitz. (in press). Continuous transfer of subterranean mealybugs (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) by Pseudolasius spp. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) during colony fission. Insectes Soc.
88. Maschwitz, U. & B. Fiala. 1995. Investigations on ant-plant associations in the South-East-Asian genus Neonauclea Merr. (Rubiaceae). Acta Oecologica 16: 3-18.
89. Maschwitz, U., B. Fiala, S.J. Davies & K.E. Linsenmair. 1996. A South-East Asian myrmecophyte with two alternative inhabitants: Camponotus or Crematogaster as partners of Macaranga lamellata. Ecotropica 2: 29-40.
90. Maschwitz, U., B. Fiala & W.R. Dolling. 1987. New trophobiotic symbioses of ants with South East Asian bugs. J. Nat. Hist. 21: 1097-1107.
91. Maschwitz, U. & H. Hänel. 1985. The migrating herdsman Dolichoderus (Diabolus) cuspidatus: an ant with a novel mode of life. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 17: 171-184.
92. Maschwitz, U., K. Dumpert & K.R. Tuck. 1986. Ants feeding on anal exudate from tortricid larvae: a new type of trophobiosis. J. Nat. Hist. 20: 1041-1050.
93. Maschwitz, U. & M. Dill. 1998. Migrating herdsmen of Mount Kinabalu. Borneo 4: 32-41.
94. Maschwitz, U., W.H.O. Dorow, A.L. Schellerich-Kaaden, A. Buschinger & H.I. Azarae. 2000. Cataulacus muticus Emery 1889 a new case of a Southeast arboreal ant- non-mutualistically specialized on giant bamboo (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Myrmicinae). Senckenbergiana Boil. 80: 165-173.
95. Mattes, M., J. Moog, M. Werner, B. Fiala, J. Nais & U. Maschwitz. 1998. The rattan palm Korthalsia robusta B1. and its ant and aphid partners: studies of a myrmecophytic association in the Kinabalu Park. Sabah Parks Nature J. 1: 47-60.
96. McKey, D. & L. Meunier. 1996. Évolution des mutualismes plantes-fourmis - quelques éléments de réflexion. Actes Coll. Insectes Sociaux 10: 1-9.
97. Miller, D.R. & M. Kosztarab. 1979. Recent advances in the study of scale insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 24: 1-27
98. Morales, M.A. 2000. Mechanisms and density dependence of benefit in an ant-membracud mutualism. Ecology 81: 482-489.
99. Moya-Raygoza, G. & L.R. Nault. 2000. Obligatory mutualism between Dalbulus quinquenotatus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) and attendant ants. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 93: 929-940.
100. Myers, J.G. 1928. Insects exploiters of animal secretions. A chapter of animal behaviour. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 23: 157-173.
101. Myers, J.G. 1929. Observations on the biology of two remarkable cixiid plant-hoppers (Homoptera) from Cuba. Psyche 34: 283-292.
102. Nechols, J.R. & T.F. Seibert. 1985. Biological control of the spherical mealybug, Nipaecoccus vastator (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): assessment by ant exclusion. Environ. Entomol. 14: 45-47.
103. Nickerson, J.C., WH. Whitcomb & G.W. Dekle. 1974. Eriococcus smithi (Eriococcidae: Homoptera): a new species record for Florida. Fla. Entomol. 57: 285.
104. Nielsen, M.G. 1997. Two specialized ant species, Crematogaster (australis Mayr group) sp. and Polyrhachis sokolova Forel in Darwin Harbour mangroves. Northern Territory Nat. 15: 1-5.
105. Nixon, G.J. 1951. The association of ants with aphids and coccids. Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, 36p.
106. Oliveira, P.S. & C.R.F. Brandão. 1991. The ant community associated with extrafloral nectaries in the Brazilian cerrados, p. 198-212. In C.R. Huxley & D.F. Cutler (eds), Ant-plant interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 601p.
107. Oliveira, P.S. & M.R. Pie. 1998. Interaction between ants and plants bearing extrafloral nectaries in cerrado vegetation. An. Soc. Entomol. Brasil 27: 161-176.
108. Ozaki, K, S. Takashima & O. Suko. 2000. Ant predation suppresses populations of the scale insect Aulacaspis marina in natural mangrove forests. Biotropica 32: 764-768.
109. Paulson, G.S. 1998. Population ecology of Formica neoclara (Emery) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and its possible role in the biological control of pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola (Foerster) (Homoptera : Psyllidae). Recent Res. Develop. Entomol. 2: 113-124.
110. Perfecto I. & A. Sediles. 1992. Vegetational diversity, ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and herbivorous pests in a Neotropical agroecosystem. Environ. Entomol. 21: 61-67.
111. Pesson, P. 1944. Contribution à l'étude morphologique et fonctionnelle de la tête, de l'appareil buccal et du tube digestif des femelles de coccides. Ministère de l'Agriculture et du Ravitaillement, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, 260p.
112. Pierce, N.E., D.R. Nash, M. Baylis & E.R. Carper. 1991. Variation in the attractiveness of lycaenid butterfly larvae to ants, p. 131-142. In C.R. Huxley & D.F. Cutler (eds), Ant-plant interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 601p.
113. Prins, A.J., Y. Ben-Dov & D.J. Rust. 1975. A new observation on the association between ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and armoured scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspidiae). J. Entomol. Soc. South. Afr. 38: 211-216.
114. Rico-Gray, V. 1993. Use of plant-derived food resources by ants in the dry tropical lowlands of coastal Veracruz, Mexico. Biotropica 25: 301-315.
115. Rozario, S.A., R.A. Farrow & P.J. Gullan. 1993. Effects of ant attendance on reproduction and survival of Eurmeloides punctata (Signoret) and Eurymela distincta Signoret (Hemiptera: Eurymelidae) on eucalypts. J. Aust. Entomol. Soc. 32: 177-186.
116. Sakata, H. 1994. How an ant decides to prey on or to attend aphids. Res. Popul. Ecol. 36: 45-51.
117. Sakata, H. 1995. Density-dependent predation of the ant Lasius niger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on two attended aphids Lachnus tropicalis and Myzocallis kuricola (Homoptera: Aphididae). Res. Popul. Ecol. 37: 159-164.
118. Sakata, H. & Y. Hashimoto. 2000. Should aphids attract or repel ants? Effect of rival aphids and extrafloral nectarines on ant-aphid interactions. Res. Popul. Ecol. 42: 171-178.
119. Samways, M.J. 1983. Interrelationship between an entomogenous fungus and two ant-homopteran (Hymenoptera: Formicidae - Homoptera: Pseudococcidae & Aphididae) mutualisms on guava trees. Bull. Entomol. Res. 73: 321-331.
120. Schultz, T.R. & T.P. McGlynn. 2000. The interactions of ants with other organisms, p. 35-44. In D. Agosti, J.D. Majer, L. Tennant de Alonso & T. Schultz (eds), Ants: standart methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 280p.
121. Schütze, M. & U. Maschwitz. 1991. Enemy recognition and defense within trophobiotic associations with ants by the soldier caste of Pseudoregma sundanica (Homoptera: Aphidoidea). Entomol. Gener. 16: 1-12.
122. Seibert, T.F. 1992. Mutualistic interactions of the aphid Lachnus allegheniensis (Homoptera : Aphididae) and its tending ant Formica obscuripes (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 85: 173-178.
123. Seifert, B. 1996. Ameisen: beobachten, bestimmen. Naturbuch Verlag, Augsburg, 351p.
124. Skinner, G.J. & J.B. Whittaker. 1981. An experimental investigation of inter-relationships between the wood-ant (Formica rufa) and some tree-canopy herbivores. J. An. Ecol. 50: 313-326.
125. Soares, I.M.F. & J.H.C. Delabie. 1999. Influência da população de formigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) sobre a população de cochonilhas da "palma" forrageira, Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché, 1833) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae). Naturalia 24: 141-142.
126. Stadler, B. & A.F.G. Dixon. 1998a. Costs of ant attendance for aphids. J. An. Ecol. 67: 454-459.
127. Stadler, B. & A.F.G. Dixon. 1998b. Why are obligate mutualistic interactions between aphids and ants so rare?, p. 271-278. In J.M. Nieto Nafria & A.F.G. Dixon (eds.), Aphids in natural and managed ecosystems, Universidad de León, León, Spain.
128. Stadler, B. & A.F.G. Dixon. 1999. Ant attendance in aphids: why different degrees of myrmecophily? Ecol. Entomol. 24: 363-369.
129. Stadler, B., K. Fiedler, T.J. Kawecki & W.W. Weisser. 2001. Costs and benefits for phytophagous myrmecophiles: when ants are not always available. Oikos 92: 476-478.
130. Stephens, G.R. & D.E. Aylor. 1978. Aerial dispersal of red pine scale, Matsucoccus resinosae (Homoptera: Margarodidae). Environ. Entomol. 7: 556-563.
131. Sudd, J.H. 1987. Ant aphid mutualism, 355-365. In A.K. Minks & P. Harrewijn (eds.), Aphids, their biology, natural ennemies, and control, vol. 2A, World Crop Pests, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
132. Sullivan, D.J. & W. Völk. 1999. Hyperparasitism: multitrophic ecology and behavior. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 44: 291-315.
133. Tilles, D.A. & D.L. Wood. 1982. The influence of Carpenter ant (Camponotus modoc) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) attendance on the development and survival of aphids(c=Cinara spp.) (Homoptera: Aphididae) in a giant sequoia forest. Can. Entomol. 114: 1133-1142.
134. Vinson, S.B. & T.A. Scarborough. 1991. Interactions between Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Homoptera: Aphididae), and the parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes Cresson (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 84: 158-164.
135. Washburn J.O. & L. Washburn. 1983. Active aerial dispersal of minute wingless arthropods: exploitation of boundary-layer velocity gradients. Science 223: 1088-1089.
136. Way, M.J. 1954. Studies on the association of the ant Oecophylla longinoda (Latr.) (Formicidae) with the scale insect Saissetia Zanzibarensis Williams (Coccidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 113-136.
137. Way, M.J. 1963. Mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing Homoptera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 8: 307-344.
138. Way, M.J. & K.C. Khoo. 1992. Role of ants in pest management. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37: 479-503.
139. Weber, N.A. 1944. The Neotropical coccid-tending ants of the genus Acropyga Roger. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 37: 89-122.
140. Weber, N.A. 1946. Two common ponerine ants of possible economic significance, Ectatomma tuberculatum (Olivier) and E. ruidum Roger. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 48: 1-16.
141. Wheeler, W.M. 1914. The ants of the Baltic amber. Schriften der Phys.-Ökon. Ges. Königsberg 55: 1-142.
142. Williams, D.J. 1998. Mealybugs of the genera Eumyrmococcus Silvestri and Xenococcus Silvestri associated with the ant genus Acropyga Roger and a review of the subfamily Rhizoecinae (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae). Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. London 67: 1-64.
143. Wimp, G.M. & T.G. Whitham. 2001. Biodiversity consequences of predation and host plant hybridization on an aphid-ant mutualism. Ecology 82: 440-452.
144. Wood, T.K. 1982. Seletive factors associated with the evolution of membracid sociality, p. 175-178. In M.D. Breed, CD. Michener & H.E. Evans (eds.), The biology of social insects, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA.