Gender and Auspice in the Development of Social Welfare in Michigan, 1869-1900

Social Service Review

Volumn 70, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 573-612

  Hurl, Lorna F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0010903134     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/604216     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. See, e.g., Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poor House (New York: Basic, 1986); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End, 1988); Phyllis Day, A New History of Welfare (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990).
2. See, e.g., Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poor House (New York: Basic, 1986); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End, 1988); Phyllis Day, A New History of Welfare (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990).
3. See, e.g., Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poor House (New York: Basic, 1986); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End, 1988); Phyllis Day, A New History of Welfare (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990).
4. See, e.g., Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poor House (New York: Basic, 1986); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End, 1988); Phyllis Day, A New History of Welfare (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990).
5. See, e.g., Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Linda Gordon, Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston, 1880-1860 (New York: Viking/Penguin, 1988); John R. Sutton, "Bureaucrats and Entrepreneurs: Institutional Responses to Deviant Children in the United States, 1890-1920s," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1367-1400.
6. See, e.g., Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Linda Gordon, Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston, 1880-1860 (New York: Viking/Penguin, 1988); John R. Sutton, "Bureaucrats and Entrepreneurs: Institutional Responses to Deviant Children in the United States, 1890-1920s," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1367-1400.
7. See, e.g., Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Linda Gordon, Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston, 1880-1860 (New York: Viking/Penguin, 1988); John R. Sutton, "Bureaucrats and Entrepreneurs: Institutional Responses to Deviant Children in the United States, 1890-1920s," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1367-1400.
8. See, e.g., Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); Stanley Wenocur and Michael Reisch, From Charity to Enterprise: The Development of American Social Work in a Market Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); John Ehrenreich, The Altruistic Imagination: A History of Social Work and Social Policy in the United States (New York: Cornell University Press, 1985); Lela Costin, Two Sisters for Social Justice (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
9. See, e.g., Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); Stanley Wenocur and Michael Reisch, From Charity to Enterprise: The Development of American Social Work in a Market Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); John Ehrenreich, The Altruistic Imagination: A History of Social Work and Social Policy in the United States (New York: Cornell University Press, 1985); Lela Costin, Two Sisters for Social Justice (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
10. See, e.g., Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); Stanley Wenocur and Michael Reisch, From Charity to Enterprise: The Development of American Social Work in a Market Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); John Ehrenreich, The Altruistic Imagination: A History of Social Work and Social Policy in the United States (New York: Cornell University Press, 1985); Lela Costin, Two Sisters for Social Justice (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
11. See, e.g., Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); Stanley Wenocur and Michael Reisch, From Charity to Enterprise: The Development of American Social Work in a Market Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); John Ehrenreich, The Altruistic Imagination: A History of Social Work and Social Policy in the United States (New York: Cornell University Press, 1985); Lela Costin, Two Sisters for Social Justice (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
12. Katz (n. 1 above), pp. 120-21.
13. Sutton (n. 2 above).
14. See, e.g., Lubove (n. 3 above); James Leiby, A History of Social Welfare and Social Work in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978); Clarke A. Chambers, "Women in the Creation of the Profession of Social Work," Social Service Review 60 (March 1986): 1-33.
15. See, e.g., Lubove (n. 3 above); James Leiby, A History of Social Welfare and Social Work in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978); Clarke A. Chambers, "Women in the Creation of the Profession of Social Work," Social Service Review 60 (March 1986): 1-33.
16. See, e.g., Katz (n. 1 above); Ehrenreich (n. 3 above); and Walter Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America (New York: Free Press, 1974).
17. See, e.g., Abramovitz (n. 1 above); Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
18. See, e.g., Abramovitz (n. 1 above); Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
19. See, e.g., Day (n. 1 above), pp. 214-16; Michael J. McTighe, "'True Philanthropy' and the Limits of the Female Sphere: Poor Relief and Labor Organizations in Antebellum Cleveland," Labor History 27 (Spring 1986): 227-56.
20. See, e.g., Day (n. 1 above), pp. 214-16; Michael J. McTighe, "'True Philanthropy' and the Limits of the Female Sphere: Poor Relief and Labor Organizations in Antebellum Cleveland," Labor History 27 (Spring 1986): 227-56.
21. Chambers (n. 6 above), pp. 7-8.
22. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 11 (February 1992): 50.
23. First Biennial Report of the State Board of Corrections and Charities (hereafter SBCC), 1871/72 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1873), p. 66.
24. "An act to establish a House of Corrections for juvenile delinquents," Public Acts of Michigan, 1855, no. 78 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1855).
25. "An act to establish an asylum for the deaf and dumb and the blind, and also an asylum for the insane of the state of Michigan," Public Acts of Michigan, 1848, no. 187 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1848).
26. "Joint resolution of the appointment of a commission to examine the discipline and general management of the penal, reformatory, and charitable institutions of the State, and report plans and recommendations for their improvement," joint resolution no. 38, Public Acts of Michigan, 1869 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1869). Homer Folks identifies this effort as the first concerted effort of any state. See his The Care of Destitute, Neglected and Delinquent Children (New York: Macmillan 1902; reprint NASW, 1978), p. 74.
27. "Joint resolution of the appointment of a commission to examine the discipline and general management of the penal, reformatory, and charitable institutions of the State, and report plans and recommendations for their improvement," joint resolution no. 38, Public Acts of Michigan, 1869 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1869). Homer Folks identifies this effort as the first concerted effort of any state. See his The Care of Destitute, Neglected and Delinquent Children (New York: Macmillan 1902; reprint NASW, 1978), p. 74.
28. George D. Gillespie, "Twenty-Five Years of the Board of Corrections and Charities," Fourteenth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1897/98 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1899), pp. 169-70.
29. Ibid., p. 170.
30. Randall's personal papers contain copies of papers he delivered and correspondence regarding his trips as American or Michigan delegate to national and international conferences on charitable and corrections issues. His career is also outlined in an untitled paper written by his daughter, Mabel Randall, in December 1930. These documents are contained in the files labeled "Correspondence" and "Papers on Michigan System of Child Saving and State School for Dependent Children" in the Caleb D. Randall papers, Bentley Historical Library (hereafter BHL), University of Michigan.
31. "An Act to provide for the appointment of a board of commissioners for the general supervision of penal, pauper, and reformatory institutions, and defining their duties and powers," Public Acts of Michigan, 1871, no. 192 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1871).
32. The term "charities" at this time did not refer to a voluntary-sector agency. It merely referred to an institution performing a work of benevolence, intended to aid and elevate the dependent. The "charitable institutions" referred to in the act were the welfare-oriented institutions run by the state, not by the voluntary sector.
33. Public Acts of Michigan, 1899, no. 41 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1899).
34. Fifteenth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1899/1900 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1901).
35. Caleb D. Randall, "The Special Commission and Dependent Children," Coldwater Reporter, 1897, in vol. 1, Records of the Michigan Children's Institute (hereafter RMCI), State Archives of Michigan (hereafter SAM).
36. Ibid., p. 395.
37. Laura S. Haviland, A Woman's Life Work (Cincinnati: Walden and Slowe, 1882); Caleb D. Randall, "The Michigan State Public School for Dependent Children," undated manuscript, ca. 1900, in "The Michigan System of Child Saving" file, Randall papers, BHL; Folks (n. 15 above).
38. Laura S. Haviland, A Woman's Life Work (Cincinnati: Walden and Slowe, 1882); Caleb D. Randall, "The Michigan State Public School for Dependent Children," undated manuscript, ca. 1900, in "The Michigan System of Child Saving" file, Randall papers, BHL; Folks (n. 15 above).
39. Caleb D. Randall, "Systems Compared," Coldwater Reporter, 1897, in vol. 1, RMCI, SAM, p. 398.
40. Caleb D. Randall, "Proper Limits of State Support for Dependent Children," Third Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1875/76 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1877), p. 61.
41. Randall, "The Special Commission" (n. 23 above).
42. Randall, "Proper Limits" (n. 27 above), p. 61.
43. Second Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1873/74 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1875), p. 35.
44. From the report of the 1869 commission, emphasis in the original, quoted in the Fourth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1877/78 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1879), p. 27. This philosophy was repeated in most SBCC reports and all public speeches describing the work of the school.
45. Caleb D. Randall, "Michigan: The Child: The State," Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1888 (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis, 1889), pp. 262-71.
46. Thirteenth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1895/96 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1897), p. 162; Caleb D. Randall estimates the figure ranges from 10 percent to 25 percent but the source of his figures is not clear. See his "Child Saving Work under State Supervision with a State School," manuscript dated 1900, in "Papers on Michigan System of Child Saving" file, Randall papers, BHL.
47. Eleanore Stern Cramer, "The Michigan State Public School for Dependent Children" (master's thesis, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1927), pp. 121-23; Biennial Reports of the SBCC, 1874-1900 (Lansing, Mich.: State Printers and Binders, various years).
48. Eleanore Stern Cramer, "The Michigan State Public School for Dependent Children" (master's thesis, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1927), pp. 121-23; Biennial Reports of the SBCC, 1874-1900 (Lansing, Mich.: State Printers and Binders, various years).
49. The active nature of the children's play appears to have declined over the years. SBCC reports in the 1870s noted the commissioners' pleasure at the sight of the happy, active children. By the 1890s their reports noted that the children's activities were as much like routine home life as possible for a family of 30 children. By the 1920s Cramer noted that there was little in the way of active play and supervised recreational activities, and that children were mainly engaged in sedentary activities such as reading or sewing. Cramer (n. 34 above), pp. 74-95.
50. Ibid., p. 92.
51. Mabel Randall, untitled speech in honor of her father, dated December 1930, in "The Michigan System of Child Saving" file, Randall Papers, BHL.
52. Correspondence, Bagley to Randall, March 23, 1879, in "Correspondence" file, Randall papers, BHL.
53. "Minutes of the Board of Control," April 1887, in vol. 1, and "Scrapbook of 1891," in vol. 30, respectively, RMCI, SAM.
54. "Minutes of the Board of Control," April 1887, in vol. 1, and "Scrapbook of 1891," in vol. 30, respectively, RMCI, SAM.
55. "Is this State Public School Practice," The News (February 3, 1891 ), and "Child and State," article from unidentified newspaper (April 20, 1891), both in vol. 30, RMCI, SAM.
56. "Is this State Public School Practice," The News (February 3, 1891 ), and "Child and State," article from unidentified newspaper (April 20, 1891), both in vol. 30, RMCI, SAM.
57. Cramer (n. 34 above).
58. Correspondence, Bagley to Randall (n. 38 above).
59. Fifth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1879/1880 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George and Co., State Printers and Binders, 1881), p. 42.
60. County agents' reports indicate many instances when judges sent children convicted of minor crimes to the Coldwater school as opposed to reform school, a practice generally endorsed by agents. In addition, from the discussion following a paper titled "Care of incorrigible children before becoming criminals," it is evident that agents considered the Coldwater school to be the appropriate place to send children who were out of parental control but who had not committed crimes. Fifth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1886 (Lansing, Mich.: Thorp & Godfrey, State Printers and Binders, 1887), pp. 10-17.
61. "Prison for Life," The News (February 19, 1891), contained in vol. 30, RMCI, SAM.
62. See, e.g., L. P. Alden, "The State School Experiment," Third Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1875/76 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1877), pp. 68-69.
63. Public Acts of Michigan, 1889, no. 189 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1889).
64. Tenth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1889/90 (Lansing, Mich.: Darius D. Thorp, State Printers and Binders, 1891), p. 85.
65. See, e.g., Third Annual Conference of County Agents, 1884 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1885), p. 3; John W. Falley, "Indigent Children from other States left in Homes in Michigan," Fifth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1886 (n. 44 above), pp. 29-34. See also Ruth Lovett Endicott, "A History of Legislation and a Survey of Facilities for the Care of Dependent Children in Michigan" (master's thesis, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1933), p. 174.
66. See, e.g., Third Annual Conference of County Agents, 1884 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1885), p. 3; John W. Falley, "Indigent Children from other States left in Homes in Michigan," Fifth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1886 (n. 44 above), pp. 29-34. See also Ruth Lovett Endicott, "A History of Legislation and a Survey of Facilities for the Care of Dependent Children in Michigan" (master's thesis, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1933), p. 174.
67. See, e.g., Third Annual Conference of County Agents, 1884 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1885), p. 3; John W. Falley, "Indigent Children from other States left in Homes in Michigan," Fifth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1886 (n. 44 above), pp. 29-34. See also Ruth Lovett Endicott, "A History of Legislation and a Survey of Facilities for the Care of Dependent Children in Michigan" (master's thesis, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1933), p. 174.
68. Cramer (n. 34 above), p. 128.
69. Ibid., p. 135.
70. "Not Twenty There," Grand Rapids Democrat (November 28, 1891); see also the discussion of the paper "Adequacy of Michigan Laws," Tenth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1891 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1892), p. 38.
71. "Not Twenty There," Grand Rapids Democrat (November 28, 1891); see also the discussion of the paper "Adequacy of Michigan Laws," Tenth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1891 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1892), p. 38.
72. Cramer (n. 34 above), p. 128.
73. Ibid., pp. 75-76.
74. Third Biennial Report (n. 27 above), pp. 6-7.
75. Second Biennial Report (n. 30 above), p. 56.
76. Public Acts of Michigan, 1873, no. 171 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1873).
77. Folks (n. 15 above), pp. 229-33, argues that the state visiting agents of the school at Monson, Massachusetts, performed the first probation services with their appointment in 1869. He attributes the second probation service to Boston with its appointment of a single probation officer in 1878. In both cases, according to Folks, agents attended juvenile trials, advised judges on the advisability of probation, and supervised children placed on probation. It does not appear that, like the Michigan agents, they performed pretrial investigations and counseling. For elaboration on the pioneering probation work of the Michigan county agents, see Lorna F. Hurl and David J. Tucker, "The Michigan County Agents and the Development of Juvenile Probation, 1873-1900," Journal of Social History (June 1997), in press.
78. Public Acts of Michigan, 1873 (n. 57 above), p. 229.
79. Third Biennial Report (n. 27 above), p. 27.
80. Caleb D. Randall, "Introductory Address on Child Saving," Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1884 (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis, 1885), p. 16.
81. Seventh Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1883/84 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1885), p. 206.
82. Michigan census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 88 percent were of American or English origins, 6 percent were Irish, and 6 percent were European. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, reveal that 95 percent of agents were of American or English origins and 5 percent were European. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS). Figures for the percentage of Michigan residents born in European countries are from U.S. Census: Tenth Census, 1880 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1883), vol. 1, Population, table 2, p. 4, and table 30, pp. 482-85, and U.S. Census: Twelfth Census, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Office, 1901), vol. 1, Population, table 1, p. xvii, and table 33, pp. 732-35.
83. Michigan census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 88 percent were of American or English origins, 6 percent were Irish, and 6 percent were European. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, reveal that 95 percent of agents were of American or English origins and 5 percent were European. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS). Figures for the percentage of Michigan residents born in European countries are from U.S. Census: Tenth Census, 1880 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1883), vol. 1, Population, table 2, p. 4, and table 30, pp. 482-85, and U.S. Census: Twelfth Census, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Office, 1901), vol. 1, Population, table 1, p. xvii, and table 33, pp. 732-35.
84. Michigan census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 88 percent were of American or English origins, 6 percent were Irish, and 6 percent were European. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, reveal that 95 percent of agents were of American or English origins and 5 percent were European. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS). Figures for the percentage of Michigan residents born in European countries are from U.S. Census: Tenth Census, 1880 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1883), vol. 1, Population, table 2, p. 4, and table 30, pp. 482-85, and U.S. Census: Twelfth Census, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Office, 1901), vol. 1, Population, table 1, p. xvii, and table 33, pp. 732-35.
85. Michigan census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 88 percent were of American or English origins, 6 percent were Irish, and 6 percent were European. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, reveal that 95 percent of agents were of American or English origins and 5 percent were European. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS). Figures for the percentage of Michigan residents born in European countries are from U.S. Census: Tenth Census, 1880 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1883), vol. 1, Population, table 2, p. 4, and table 30, pp. 482-85, and U.S. Census: Twelfth Census, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Office, 1901), vol. 1, Population, table 1, p. xvii, and table 33, pp. 732-35.
86. Fourteenth Biennial Report (n. 16 above), p. 177.
87. Census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 47 percent of agents were "men of affairs," 11 percent were engineers, teachers, insurance, or real estate agents, 26 percent were farmers, and 16 percent were skilled laborers. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, show that 20 percent were "men of affairs," 30 percent were engineers, teachers, insurance, or real estate agents, 21 percent were farmers, 10 percent were skilled laborers, 8 percent were police constables or poorhouse superintendents, 7 percent were unskilled laborers, and 5 percent listed themselves only as "county agent." U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS).
88. Census data for 1880, available for 17 of 38 agents, reveal that 47 percent of agents were "men of affairs," 11 percent were engineers, teachers, insurance, or real estate agents, 26 percent were farmers, and 16 percent were skilled laborers. Census data for 1900, available for 63 of 72 agents, show that 20 percent were "men of affairs," 30 percent were engineers, teachers, insurance, or real estate agents, 21 percent were farmers, 10 percent were skilled laborers, 8 percent were police constables or poorhouse superintendents, 7 percent were unskilled laborers, and 5 percent listed themselves only as "county agent." U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS).
89. Census data on 17 of 38 agents in 1880 and 63 of 72 agents in 1900 show the mean age in 1880 was 44 years compared with 55 years in 1900. In 1880, agents had an average of two children each, compared with three children in 1900. The increase in the average ages and numbers of children and the addition of the status of widower in 1900 were the result of the reappointment of agents throughout the period. Records indicate that one agent appointed in 1875 and five appointed in 1880 retained their appointments until at least 1900. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS).
90. Census data on 17 of 38 agents in 1880 and 63 of 72 agents in 1900 show the mean age in 1880 was 44 years compared with 55 years in 1900. In 1880, agents had an average of two children each, compared with three children in 1900. The increase in the average ages and numbers of children and the addition of the status of widower in 1900 were the result of the reappointment of agents throughout the period. Records indicate that one agent appointed in 1875 and five appointed in 1880 retained their appointments until at least 1900. U.S. Census of Population: Michigan, 1880 and 1900, in U.S. National Archives and Records Service, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, and Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, D.C.: NARS).
91. Second Biennial Report (n. 30 above), p. 57.
92. Public Acts of Michigan, 1875, no. 37 (Lansing: State of Michigan, 1875). A legislative amendment in 1885 provided that agents would be compensated at the rate of a maximum of $3.00 per day regardless of the number of children visited.
93. William McAdoo, "The Settler State: Immigration Policy and the Rise of Institutionalized Racism in Nineteenth Century Michigan" (Ph.D. thesis, Department of History, University of Michigan, 1983), p. 431.
94. Sixth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1881/82 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1883), p. 143; Third Annual Conference of County Agents, 1884 (n. 49 above), p. 8.
95. Sixth Biennial Report of the SBCC, 1881/82 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1883), p. 143; Third Annual Conference of County Agents, 1884 (n. 49 above), p. 8.
96. Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), pp. 144, 139.
97. The 1889 report for Wayne County listed 183 arrests, 45 children sent to public institutions, and no indentured children placed or visited. Assuming the figures for 1895 and 1900 held approximately the same relationship between Wayne and the remainder of the counties, comparable figures for 1895 would suggest an overall total of 1,137 arrests, 308 children sent to public institutions, and 829 children left in their own homes. Similarly, for 1900, totals would approximate 1,482 arrests, 354 children sent to public institutions, and 1,128 children left in their own homes. However, given the high immigration rates into Detroit in the 1890s and the fact that poor and immigrant children constituted a disproportionately high percentage of agents' work with delinquent children, these figures are a conservative estimate. Because the Wayne County agent did little or no placing or visiting of indentured children, these figures would remain unchanged.
98. Seventh Annual Conference of County Agents, 1888 (Lansing, Mich.: Thorp & Godfrey, State Printers and Binders, 1889), p. 34.
99. "Report of the State Agent," June 28, 1888, pp. 131-32, in vol. 10, RMCI, SAM.
100. For example, agent Streeter's reports indicate that in April 1885 he visited 124 children and investigated 13 new applications for homes. In May of the same year, he visited 65 children and investigated 6 new applications. Between July 1, 1888, and July 1, 1889, he traveled 7,000 miles by railroad and 2,500 miles by carriage while visiting 569 children and investigating 79 new applicants. Monthly and annual summaries contained in "Report of the State Agent," vol. 10, RMCI, SAM.
101. See, e.g., Fifth Biennial Report (n. 43 above), p. 47.
102. Seventh Biennial Report (n. 62 above), p. 210.
103. Fifth Biennial Report (n. 43 above), p. 131.
104. Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1887 (Lansing, Mich.: Thorp & Godfrey, State Printers and Binders, 1888), p. 18.
105. Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), pp. 213-14.
106. Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents (n. 79 above), p. 39.
107. Eighth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1889 (Lansing, Mich.: Darius D. Thorp, State Printers and Binders, 1890), p. 29.
108. Fourth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1885 (Lansing: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1886), pp. 46-47; Fifth Biennial Report (n. 43 above), p. 137; Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents (n. 79 above), p. 21.
109. Fourth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1885 (Lansing: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1886), pp. 46-47; Fifth Biennial Report (n. 43 above), p. 137; Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents (n. 79 above), p. 21.
110. Fourth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1885 (Lansing: W. S. George & Co., State Printers and Binders, 1886), pp. 46-47; Fifth Biennial Report (n. 43 above), p. 137; Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents (n. 79 above), p. 21.
111. Second Annual Conference of County Agents, 1883 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., 1884), p. 17; Fifteenth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1896 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1897), p. 21; Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), p. 214.
112. Second Annual Conference of County Agents, 1883 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., 1884), p. 17; Fifteenth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1896 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1897), p. 21; Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), p. 214.
113. Second Annual Conference of County Agents, 1883 (Lansing, Mich.: W. S. George & Co., 1884), p. 17; Fifteenth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1896 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1897), p. 21; Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), p. 214.
114. Caleb D. Randall, "Location of School at Coldwater," Coldwater Reporter, 1897, in vol. 1, RMCI, SAM, p. 396.
115. Caleb D. Randall, "Phenomenal Success," Coldwater Reporter, 1897, in vol. 1, RMCI, SAM, p. 397.
116. William P. Letchworth, "Dependent Children and Family Homes," Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1897 (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis, 1898), p. 97.
117. Folks (n. 15 above), pp. 82-86, 233.
118. Twenty-Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1907 (Lansing, Mich.: Robert Smith Printers, 1908), p. 6. The judge's comment was reported by Governor Warner of Michigan in an address to the county agents. Governor Warner did not mention the judge by name, but it would have been either Judge Richard Tuthill (1899-1904) or Judge Julian Mack (1904-7).
119. Caleb D. Randall, "Report of the Committee on Child Saving Work," Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1893 (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis, 1894), p. 135.
120. Caleb D. Randall, "The Michigan State Public School for Dependent Children" (n. 25 above), p. 2.5.
121. Second Biennial Report (n. 30 above), p. 60.
122. Barry D. Karl, "Lo, the Poor Volunteer: An Essay on the Relation between History and Myth," Social Service Review 58, no. 4 (December 1984): 493-522, at 498.
123. Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 18-19.
124. Gillespie (n. 16 above), p. 174.
125. Walter I. Trattner, Homer Folks: Pioneer in Social Welfare (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), pp. 43-44. Trattner noted the initiation of a placing-out system associated with private agencies in New York: "The Newburgh [N.Y.] experiment proved to be a valuable lesson of far-reaching significance: it gave birth to 'one of the major events in the history of social services for children destined to have an enduring influence upon public social welfare agencies and activities' throughout the nation - the County Agent System."
126. Folks (n. 15 above), pp. 229-33.
127. Ibid., p. 97.
128. Agents and SBCC commissioners were particularly critical of the practices of agencies in the eastern states and by the local Children's Home Society. Although formal investigations by Hastings Hart and Folks found fault with the private agencies' practices, they were less devastating in their critiques. Hastings H. Hart, "Placing Out Children in the West," Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1884 (Boston: Geo. H. Ellis, 1885), pp. 143-50; Folks (n. 15 above); Endicott (n. 49 above), p. 174.
129. Sutton (n. 2 above).
130. Identification of Randall and public institution administrators is based on the authorship of articles contained in the Department of Social Welfare Collection at the State of Michigan Archives, copies of public speeches and papers by Randall contained in his papers in BHL, and copies of presentations by Randall and institutional administrators contained in the Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1874-1900.
131. Folks (n. 15 above), ch. 5. Folks notes that 11 states adopted "more or less closely the Michigan model" (p. 94). According to his descriptions, none of the states adopted a system of county agents with as wide a range of activities as the Michigan county agents.
132. See, e.g., Douglas C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul A. David, "Clio and the Economics of QWERTY," Economic History 2 (1985): 332-37.
133. See, e.g., Douglas C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul A. David, "Clio and the Economics of QWERTY," Economic History 2 (1985): 332-37.
134. Files of the Detroit Young Men's Benevolent Society, Burton Archives, Detroit Public Library; Robert E. Buchta, "Reforming the Poor: The Birth of the Detroit Association of Charities" (master's major history paper, Wayne State University, 1990).
135. Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967); Lubove (n. 3 above); Ehrenreich (n. 3 above).
136. Sixth Biennial Report (n. 70 above), p. 144.
137. Albert F. Palm and Gregg W. Smith, "Inescapable Partisanship in a Ticket-Splitting State," in Michigan Politics and Government, ed. William P. Browne and Kenneth Verburg (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), pp. 193-217.
138. The possibility of women serving as agents was first raised at the Sixth Annual Conference of County Agents, 1887 (n. 79 above), p. 20, and again at the conference the following year (p. 25).
139. Gordon, "Social Insurance" (n. 11 above).
140. Sutton (n. 2 above).