Human rights, democratizatiom and the European community in Turkish politics: The Özal years, 1983-87

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 17-40

  Dagi, Ihsan D ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0009697101     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004367     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. For the transition to civilian government see I.D. Dagi, 'Democratic Transition in Turkey: The Impact of European Diplomacy', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.32, No.2 (1996), pp. 124-41; F. Ahmad, 'The Transition to Democracy in Turkey', Third World Quarterly, Vol.7 (April 1985).
2. For the transition to civilian government see I.D. Dagi, 'Democratic Transition in Turkey: The Impact of European Diplomacy', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.32, No.2 (1996), pp. 124-41; F. Ahmad, 'The Transition to Democracy in Turkey', Third World Quarterly, Vol.7 (April 1985).
3. Keesing's Contemporary Archives (hereafter Keesing's), June 1984, p.32925; and Ahmad, 'The Transition', pp.213-14.
4. Keesing's Contemporary Archives (hereafter Keesing's), June 1984, p.32925; and Ahmad, 'The Transition', pp.213-14.
5. For example see K. Mackenzie, Turkey in Transition: The West's Neglected Ally (London: Institute for European Defence and Strategic Studies, 1984), p.15; and Keesing's, Dec. 1983, p.32581.
6. For example see K. Mackenzie, Turkey in Transition: The West's Neglected Ally (London: Institute for European Defence and Strategic Studies, 1984), p.15; and Keesing's, Dec. 1983, p.32581.
7. See Hukumet Programi 1983 (Government Programme) (Ankara: Basbakanlik Basimevi), p.56; T. Özal, Turkey in Europe and Europe in Turkey (K. Rastem & Brothers, 1991), pp.312-15.
8. See Hukumet Programi 1983 (Government Programme) (Ankara: Basbakanlik Basimevi), p.56; T. Özal, Turkey in Europe and Europe in Turkey (K. Rastem & Brothers, 1991), pp.312-15.
9. Hukumet Programi 1983, p.53.
10. Basbakan Turgut Özal'in Basin Toplatilari, 7 Ocak 1984-30 Kasim 1987, 15 Dec. 1984, p.22.
11. For some arguments raised by the European Parliamentarians, see Official Journal of the European Communities: Debates of the European Parliament, 10 Dec. 1986, Nos.2-346, pp.149-59; and Mackenzie, Turkey in Transition, p.7.
12. For some arguments raised by the European Parliamentarians, see Official Journal of the European Communities: Debates of the European Parliament, 10 Dec. 1986, Nos.2-346, pp.149-59; and Mackenzie, Turkey in Transition, p.7.
13. See E. Mortimer in The Times, 26 July 1985.
14. The statement of the Foreign Ministers of the Twelve on human rights, Bulletin of the European Communities (hereafter Bulletin EC), 7/8, 1986, point 2.4-4.
15. Ibid.
16. Bulletin EC, Jan. 1984, p.48; and Keesing's, July 1984, p.32986.
17. Bulletin EC, Jan. 1984, p.48; and Keesing's, July 1984, p.32986.
18. See Resolution on election in Turkey, Official Journal of the European Communities: Information and Notices (hereafter Official Journal EC), NoC 307/79, 14 Nov. 1983.
19. Thirty Second Review of the Council's Work 1984 (General Secretariat of the Council of the EC, Brussels, 1985), p.164.
20. Bulletin EC, Dec. 1984, p.97.
21. Resolution, on respect for human rights in Turkey, Official Journal EC, No.C 172/128, 24 April 1984; and Official Journal EC, NoC 172/129.
22. Resolution, on respect for human rights in Turkey, Official Journal EC, No.C 172/128, 24 April 1984; and Official Journal EC, NoC 172/129.
23. Official Journal EC, NoC 172/128, 24 April 1984.
24. See ibid.
25. Resolution on death sentences in Turkey, Official Journal EC, No C 300/35, 11 Oct. 1984. After these executions the Turkish Parliament did not ratify any death sentence.
26. The subject of the resolution was Mahmut Dikerdem who was a former ambassador and President of Turkish Peace Association; see resolution on the release of Mr Dikerdem, Official Journal EC, NoC 300/36, 11 Oct. 1984.
27. Survey of the Main Activities of the European Parliament, July 1985-June 1986 (Directorate General for Research, 1986), p.27.
28. See Resolution 'on the ruthless violation of human rights and the bloody reign of terror in Turkey', Official Journal EC, No C 122/120, 18 April 1985.
29. Resolution on those convicted at the trial of members of the Turkish Peace Committee, Official Journal EC, No C 175/222, 13 June 1985.
30. The Times, 10 June 1985.
31. European Parliament Working Documents, Document A 2-117/85, 9 Oct. 1985, Report of Political Affairs Committee On the Human Rights situation in Turkey, Rapporteur R. Balfe, p.25.
32. Resolution on the human rights situation in Turkey, Official Journal EC, No C 343/60, 23 Oct. 1985; for the Parliamentary debate before the voting see Debates of the European Parliament No.2-331/47-63.
33. Resolution on the human rights situation in Turkey, Official Journal EC, No C 343/60, 23 Oct. 1985; for the Parliamentary debate before the voting see Debates of the European Parliament No.2-331/47-63.
34. See Debates of the European Parliament, No.2-331/47-63.
35. S. Gunver, Kizgin Dam Uzerinde Diplomasi:Avrupali olabilmenin Bedeli (Istanbul: Milliyet Yay, 1989), p.303.
36. Official Journal EC, NoC 343/60, 23 Oct. 1985.
37. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.21; and Keesing's July 1986, pp.34500 and 34496. The Turkish Grand National Assembly voted for a partial amnesty bill on 11 March 1986 and adopted another bill in April 1986 which lifted the ban on the expression of opinion on domestic and foreign policy by former politicians.
38. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.21; and Keesing's July 1986, pp.34500 and 34496. The Turkish Grand National Assembly voted for a partial amnesty bill on 11 March 1986 and adopted another bill in April 1986 which lifted the ban on the expression of opinion on domestic and foreign policy by former politicians.
39. See Debates of the European Parliament, No.2, 346/129-139, 10 Dec. 1986.
40. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500; The Times, 18 Feb. 1986.
41. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500; The Times, 18 Feb. 1986.
42. Bulletin EC, June 1986, p.87; Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500.
43. Bulletin EC, June 1986, p.87; Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500.
44. Debates of the European Parliament, No.2, 346/132, 10 Dec. 1986; also see The Times, 17 Sept. 1986.
45. Debates of the European Parliament, No.2, 346/132, 10 Dec. 1986; also see The Times, 17 Sept. 1986.
46. Bulletin EC, Sept. 1986, pp.69-70.
47. G. Howe's statement in The Times, 17 Sept. 1986.
48. Turkey received lin 1986 10 million ECU as special aid which was approved in 1980 and later delayed. Another 20 million ECU was transfered from the contributions of Denmark, Ireland and Britain to the Second EC-Turkey Financial Protocol, see Thirty Fourth Review of the Council's Work 1986 (General Sec. of EC, Brussels, 1987), p.126; Twentieth General Report on the Activities of the European Commission 1986 (Brussels, 1987), p.318.
49. Turkey received lin 1986 10 million ECU as special aid which was approved in 1980 and later delayed. Another 20 million ECU was transfered from the contributions of Denmark, Ireland and Britain to the Second EC-Turkey Financial Protocol, see Thirty Fourth Review of the Council's Work 1986 (General Sec. of EC, Brussels, 1987), p.126; Twentieth General Report on the Activities of the European Commission 1986 (Brussels, 1987), p.318.
50. Resolution on relations between the EEC and Turkey, Official Journal EC, No C 7/109-111, Dec. 1986.
51. See Survey of the Main Activities of the European Parliament, July 1987-June 1988 (Directorate General for Research, 1988), p.3
52. See Debates of the European Parliament, No.2-346/155, 10 Dec. 1986.
53. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.13; The Times, 8 Dec. 1986, E. Noel, the Secretary General of the European Community, said that the EC would give a negative answer to Turkey's application in the near future. As he expressed, Turkey was expected to establish a full democratic system as understood by the West before an accession: Foreign Broadcast Information Service: Western Europe (hereafter FBIS:WE) 21 Jan. 1987, T.4. On the other hand, Cheysson, a member of the Commission, highlighted Turkey's economic inadequacies for membership, see Briefing, 30 Dec. 1985.
54. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.13; The Times, 8 Dec. 1986, E. Noel, the Secretary General of the European Community, said that the EC would give a negative answer to Turkey's application in the near future. As he expressed, Turkey was expected to establish a full democratic system as understood by the West before an accession: Foreign Broadcast Information Service: Western Europe (hereafter FBIS:WE) 21 Jan. 1987, T.4. On the other hand, Cheysson, a member of the Commission, highlighted Turkey's economic inadequacies for membership, see Briefing, 30 Dec. 1985.
55. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.13; The Times, 8 Dec. 1986, E. Noel, the Secretary General of the European Community, said that the EC would give a negative answer to Turkey's application in the near future. As he expressed, Turkey was expected to establish a full democratic system as understood by the West before an accession: Foreign Broadcast Information Service: Western Europe (hereafter FBIS:WE) 21 Jan. 1987, T.4. On the other hand, Cheysson, a member of the Commission, highlighted Turkey's economic inadequacies for membership, see Briefing, 30 Dec. 1985.
56. See Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.13; The Times, 8 Dec. 1986, E. Noel, the Secretary General of the European Community, said that the EC would give a negative answer to Turkey's application in the near future. As he expressed, Turkey was expected to establish a full democratic system as understood by the West before an accession: Foreign Broadcast Information Service: Western Europe (hereafter FBIS:WE) 21 Jan. 1987, T.4. On the other hand, Cheysson, a member of the Commission, highlighted Turkey's economic inadequacies for membership, see Briefing, 30 Dec. 1985.
57. See, for example, F. Armaoglu, Tercuman, 20 Jan. 1987, p.4 in FBIS: WE, 28 Jan. 1987; and M.A. Birand, Türkey'nin Ortak Pazar Macerasi (Ankera: Bilgi, 1985) p.439.
58. See, for example, F. Armaoglu, Tercuman, 20 Jan. 1987, p.4 in FBIS: WE, 28 Jan. 1987; and M.A. Birand, Türkey'nin Ortak Pazar Macerasi (Ankera: Bilgi, 1985) p.439.
59. See, for example, F. Armaoglu, Tercuman, 20 Jan. 1987, p.4 in FBIS: WE, 28 Jan. 1987; and M.A. Birand, Türkey'nin Ortak Pazar Macerasi (Ankera: Bilgi, 1985) p.439.
60. As stated by the Minister of State Ali Bozer in March 1986, Keesing's, May 1987, p.35137.
61. Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.13.
62. The Times, 19 Feb. 1986; and Busbakan Özal'in Konusma, Menaj. Bevanat ve Mulakatlari. 13 Dec. 1985-12 Dec. 1986 (Ankara: Basbakanlik, 1986), 18 Feb. 1986, p.261.
63. The Times, 19 Feb. 1986; and Busbakan Özal'in Konusma, Menaj. Bevanat ve Mulakatlari. 13 Dec. 1985-12 Dec. 1986 (Ankara: Basbakanlik, 1986), 18 Feb. 1986, p.261.
64. Quoted in The Times, 15 April 1987.
65. See Özal's statements in Turkish Review (1987), pp.17-18; and FBIS: WE, 18 March 1877, T.2-4.
66. See Özal's statements in Turkish Review (1987), pp.17-18; and FBIS: WE, 18 March 1877, T.2-4.
67. Basbakan Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 15 Dec. 1984, p.22.
68. Özal. Turkish Review (1986), p.135; See also T. Özal, Turkey in Europe, pp.312-15.
69. Özal. Turkish Review (1986), p.135; See also T. Özal, Turkey in Europe, pp.312-15.
70. T. Özal, 'Turkey in the Southern Flank', Brassey's Defence Yearbook (1989), p.6.
71. U. Steinbach, 'Turkey's Third Republic', Aussenpolitik, Vol.39, No.3 (1988), p.248.
72. Özal speaking in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, PACE, Official Report, 27 Sept. 1989, p.503.
73. See A. Bozer, 'Turkish Foreign Policy in the Changing World', Mediterranean Quarterly, Vol.1, No.3 (1990), pp.20-2.
74. See the interview with Steinbach in H.Cemal. Özal Hikayesi (Ankara: Bilgi, 1989), p.181. See Barlas, Turgut Özal'in Anilari (Istanbul: Sabah Kitaplari, 1994 , pp.115-35 for Özal's understanding of foreign affairs.
75. See the interview with Steinbach in H.Cemal. Özal Hikayesi (Ankara: Bilgi, 1989), p.181. See Barlas, Turgut Özal'in Anilari (Istanbul: Sabah Kitaplari, 1994 , pp.115-35 for Özal's understanding of foreign affairs.
76. Turkey: Country Report, p.9; for an analysis of Turkish trade with the Middle East, which drew the conclusion that Turkish trade with the Middle East was volatile, see H. Akder, 'Turkey's Export Expansion in the Middle East, 1980-1985', The Middle East Journal, Vol.41, No.4 (1987).
77. Turkey: Country Report, p.9; for an analysis of Turkish trade with the Middle East, which drew the conclusion that Turkish trade with the Middle East was volatile, see H. Akder, 'Turkey's Export Expansion in the Middle East, 1980-1985', The Middle East Journal, Vol.41, No.4 (1987).
78. See Basbakan Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 4 Dec. 1985.
79. Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.19. Turkey obviously did not get from the US what it wanted. What it got was a memorandum of understanding signed in July 1987 aimed at increasing Turkish textile product exports to the US, see Keesing's, May 1987, p.35136
80. Briefing, 29 Dec. 1986, p.19. Turkey obviously did not get from the US what it wanted. What it got was a memorandum of understanding signed in July 1987 aimed at increasing Turkish textile product exports to the US, see Keesing's, May 1987, p.35136
81. Bulletin EC, April 1987, p.11; and Keesing's, May 1987, p.35137.
82. Bulletin EC, April 1987, p.11; and Keesing's, May 1987, p.35137.
83. Basbakan Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 14 April 1987, pp.3-6.
84. Thirty-Fifth Review of the Council's Work, 1 Jan.-31 Dec. 1987 (General Sec. of the Council of the EC, Brussels, 1988), pp.127-8; The Times, 28 April 1987.
85. Thirty-Fifth Review of the Council's Work, 1 Jan.-31 Dec. 1987 (General Sec. of the Council of the EC, Brussels, 1988), pp.127-8; The Times, 28 April 1987.
86. Resolution on a political solution to the Armenian question, Official Journal EC, No C190/119, 18 June 1987.
87. FBIS: WE, 24 June 1987. The European Parliament was accused of encouraging Armenian and Kurdish terrorist activities by the President and the Defence Minister, see The Times, 22 June and 23 June 1987.
88. FBIS: WE, 24 June 1987. The European Parliament was accused of encouraging Armenian and Kurdish terrorist activities by the President and the Defence Minister, see The Times, 22 June and 23 June 1987.
89. FBIS: WE, 17 Nov. 1987. The Communist leaders Kutlu and Sargin were arrested on arrival. During interrogations they claimed that they were continously tortured. For their testimony before the court, see Kutlu-Sargin Sorgu, The Interrogation (Istanbul. Amac, 1988), pp.203, 230-43.
90. FBIS: WE, 17 Nov. 1987. The Communist leaders Kutlu and Sargin were arrested on arrival. During interrogations they claimed that they were continously tortured. For their testimony before the court, see Kutlu-Sargin Sorgu, The Interrogation (Istanbul. Amac, 1988), pp.203, 230-43.
91. See FBIS: WE, 9 Nov. 1987, p.23 for the view of the Communist leaders.
92. See ibid, for the delegation accompanied Kutlu and Sargin.
93. Resolution on the arbitrary arrests in Turkey on 16 Nov. 1987, Official Journal EC, No C345/133, 19 Nov. 1987.
94. See the editorial of daily Milliyet, 28 Oct. 1987, in FBIS: WE, 5 Nov. 1987, p.22.
95. See Briefing 4 Jan. 1988, pp.4-5.
96. Total financial aid amounted 10 million ECU, see Thirty-fifth Review of the Council's in work, 1 Jan.-31 Dec. 1987 (Gen. Sec. of The Council of the EC, Brussels 1988), p.127.
97. See Birand, Türkiy'nin Ortak Pazar Macerasi, p.439.
98. Busbakan Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 16 Sept. 1985, p.16.
99. See the statement of the Foreign Ministers of the twelve, Bulletin EC, 7/8-1986, No.2.4.4.
100. Speeches of Giolitti and Sutherland, members of the Commission, before the European Parliament, see respectively Debates of the European Parliament, 2 317/151, 11 Oct. 1984; and No.2-331/61, 22 Oct. 1985.
101. PACE, Official Report, 27 Sept. 1989, p.503, speech to the Assembly.
102. Özal, speaking at the Royal Institute of international Affairs, Turkish Review (1986), p.134.
103. C. Dodd, The Crisis of Turkish Democracy (London; Eothen, 1990), p.127.
104. According to Amnesty International figures between 1985 till mid 1986 the courts passed 179 death sentences, Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500.
105. See Kenan Evren'in Anilari (Istanbul: Milliyet Yayinlari, 1991), Vol.5, p.135.
106. Resolution 840 (1985). Texts Adopted by the Assembly. Rapporteur of Legal Affairs Committee Stoffelen also denounced the executions and urged the Turkish government stop approving other death sentences. See PACE, Official Report, 22-26 April 1985, p.61.
107. Resolution 840 (1985). Texts Adopted by the Assembly. Rapporteur of Legal Affairs Committee Stoffelen also denounced the executions and urged the Turkish government stop approving other death sentences. See PACE, Official Report, 22-26 April 1985, p.61.
108. See quotation from Evren's speech he made while visiting West Germany in 1988, in M.S. Gemalmaz. The Institutionalization Process of the 'Turkish Type of Democracy': A Politico-Juridical Analysis of Human Rights (Istanbul: Amac. 1989), p.51.
109. 'Kenan Evren'in Anilari', serial in daily Milliyet, 9 Nov. 1990, p.25.
110. See, for instance his speech to British MPs. The Times, 20 Feb. 1986.
111. The Times, 10 June 1985.
112. PACE greeted the establisment and work of the Parliamentary Committee.
113. Amnesty International continuously claimed that torture remained systematic and widespread in Turkey. Turkey: Testimony on Torture (London: Amnesty International, 1985).
114. See Özal's interview in Der Spiegel, 16 March 1987, p.165, as printed in FBIS: WE, 18 March 1987, T.2-4.
115. See Özal's interview in Der Spiegel, 16 March 1987, p.165, as printed in FBIS: WE, 18 March 1987, T.2-4.
116. The prosecution of torturers was carried on during this period, between May 1985 and May 1986 nearly 30 policemen were convicted for their part in torture cases. Keesing's, July 1986: p.34500. A Foreign Ministry spokesman gave the number convicted for torturing from 1980 to mid-1985 as 105, see The Times, 26 July 1985.
117. The prosecution of torturers was carried on during this period, between May 1985 and May 1986 nearly 30 policemen were convicted for their part in torture cases. Keesing's, July 1986: p.34500. A Foreign Ministry spokesman gave the number convicted for torturing from 1980 to mid-1985 as 105, see The Times, 26 July 1985.
118. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500. See Özal's explanation of the change in the law on the execution of penalties, in Basbukan Özal'in Konusma, Mesaj, Bevanat ve Mulakatlari, 1985-1986 (Ankara: Basbakanlik Basimevi) 7 Feb. 1986, p.232; and ibid. 11 Feb. 1986, pp.239-40.
119. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500. See Özal's explanation of the change in the law on the execution of penalties, in Basbukan Özal'in Konusma, Mesaj, Bevanat ve Mulakatlari, 1985-1986 (Ankara: Basbakanlik Basimevi) 7 Feb. 1986, p.232; and ibid. 11 Feb. 1986, pp.239-40.
120. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34500. See Özal's explanation of the change in the law on the execution of penalties, in Basbukan Özal'in Konusma, Mesaj, Bevanat ve Mulakatlari, 1985-1986 (Ankara: Basbakanlik Basimevi) 7 Feb. 1986, p.232; and ibid. 11 Feb. 1986, pp.239-40.
121. Evren believed that the Europeans were giving Turkey a hard time because of these trials, Evren, Kenan Evren'in Anilari, Vol.5, p.59.
122. Keesing's, July 1986, p.34496.
123. Evren, Kenan Evren'in Anilari, Vol.5, p.383. He was strongly against a general amnesty, ibid., pp.88, 96.
124. Evren, Kenan Evren'in Anilari, Vol.5, p.383. He was strongly against a general amnesty, ibid., pp.88, 96.
125. See Özal's speech published in, Türk Demokrasi Vakfi Bulteni, p.15.
126. FBIS: WE, 25 March 1987. T.2.
127. See editorial of Milliyet for a reminder of this, 28 Oct. 1987, in FBIS: WE, 5 Nov. 1987, p.22.
128. See Bssbakan Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 14 April 1987, pp.3-6. In the second half of the speech Özal argued for the economic fitness of Turkey to enter the EC.
129. Özal, in September 1987 again directly said that the acceptance of his ruling Motherland Party as a member of the International Democratic Union showed that there was no human rights problem in Turkey, see FBIS: WE, 25 Sept. 1987, p. 14.
130. FBIS: WE, 15 April 1987, t.6.
131. Evren, kenan Evren 'in Anilari., Vol.5, p.62.
132. Steinbach, 'Turkey Third Republic', p.248.
133. FBIS: WE, 28 Jan. 1987, p.5.
134. See, for instance, the speech of the President of the Council of Europe, in PACE, Official Report, 18th Session, 27 Sept. 1989.
135. Özal'in Basin Toplantilari, 12 Sept. 1987, pp.22-3.
136. See Official Journal EC, No C343/62, 23 Oct. 1985.
137. Özal said in an interview with Der Spiegel, on 16 March 1987, 'it can only be helpful for our democracy if we were to become a Community member. By the way my government only recently permitted the Turks to turn to the ECHR', in FBIS: WE, 18 March 1987, T.2-4.
138. Gemalmaz, The institutionalization Process, p.24.
139. Keesing's, May 1987, p.35131.
140. President Evren explains that he was considering lifting the ban in mid-1986 but after consulting his military collegues, he says, he abandoned this idea: see Cemal, Özal Hikayesi, pp.205-21, for a journalistic story of the debate.
141. The meeting between Bozer and Tindemans took place at the end of September, see FBIS: WE, 2 Oct. 1987.
142. See The Times, 9 Sept. 1987.
143. A. Finkel and W. Hale, 'Politics and Procedure in the 1987 Turkish General Election', in A. Finkel and N. Sirman (eds.). Turkish State, Turkish Society (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 108.
144. FBIS: WE, 20 April 1987.
145. E. Ozbudun, 'Development of Democratic Government in Turkey: Crises, Interruptions and Reequilibrations', in E. Ozbudun (ed.), Perspectives on Democracy in Turkey (Ankara: Turkish Political Science Association, 1988), p.45.