Where is woman in International Relations? 'To return as a woman and be heard'

Millenium

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 847-867

  Zalewski, Marysia ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0009197446     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298980270041201     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Rebecca Grant and David Long (eds.), Special Issue: Women and International Relations, Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol.17, No.3, 1988).
2. V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States: Feminist (Re)Visions of International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
3. Clearly I am referring to the formal introduction of issues concerned with feminism, women and gender. Work in this area was being done before 1988. Berenice Carroll's article, 'Peace Research: the Cult of Power', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 16, No. 4, 1972), pp. 585-616, was published in 1972 and is correctly, in my opinion, situated by Craig Murphy as an early and important discussion of feminist work in relation to International Relations. See Craig Murphy, 'Seeing Women, Recognizing Gender, Recasting International Relations', International Organization (Vol. 50, No. 3, 1996), pp. 513-38. But as Murphy also claims, 'mainstream international relations ignored the trail that Carroll had blazed'. Murphy, p. 513. Murphy identifies the Millennium special issue in 1988 as a turning point with regard to the debate about women/gender and IR. Murphy, p. 514.
4. Clearly I am referring to the formal introduction of issues concerned with feminism, women and gender. Work in this area was being done before 1988. Berenice Carroll's article, 'Peace Research: the Cult of Power', Journal of Conflict Resolution (Vol. 16, No. 4, 1972), pp. 585-616, was published in 1972 and is correctly, in my opinion, situated by Craig Murphy as an early and important discussion of feminist work in relation to International Relations. See Craig Murphy, 'Seeing Women, Recognizing Gender, Recasting International Relations', International Organization (Vol. 50, No. 3, 1996), pp. 513-38. But as Murphy also claims, 'mainstream international relations ignored the trail that Carroll had blazed'. Murphy, p. 513. Murphy identifies the Millennium special issue in 1988 as a turning point with regard to the debate about women/gender and IR. Murphy, p. 514.
5. My attention was drawn to de Pisan's wish to 'return as a woman and be heard' by a paper presented by Berenice Carroll I was discussing at the International Studies Association conference in Toronto in March 1997. This paper, entitled 'Christine De Pisan and the Origins of Peace Theory' has been published in Hilda L. Smith (ed.), Women Writers and the Early Modern British Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
6. I do not mean to resurrect de Pisan as a feminist. I simply want to use something she said which inspired me.
7. Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland (eds.), Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), p. 4.
8. The category of woman has been used in ways which are essentialist, ethnocentric, racist, and heteroscxist. However, this does not mean that any use of it automatically implies these criticisms are valid.
9. I am also not saying that no one should study gender! Nor am I claiming that the use of the category of woman is a guaranteed proof against the strategies of placement I indicate are commonplace in International Relations.
10. Sarah Franklin (ed.), The Sociology of Gender (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1996), p. xxvii.
11. To repeat, I am not concerned with assessing the accuracy or source of the move from woman to gender but in examining some of its effects within International Relations.
12. Franklin, op. cit., in note 9, p. xxvii.
13. Jacques Derrida, Spurs/Eperons, trans. B. Harlow (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 71.
14. Adam Jones 'Does "gender" make the world go round? Feminist critiques of international relations', Review of International Studies (Vol. 22, No. 4, 1996), pp. 405-429. There is the problem of legitimating and/or over-emphasising the importance of Jones' article by analysing it in this forum. However, I think his arguments merit discussion because they were clearly legitimated by the awarding of the prize for the best scholarly article of the year in one of the most important IR journals in the UK.
15. Jones, Ibid., p. 420.
16. Murphy, op. cit., in note 3, p. 526.
17. Susan Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images from Plato to O.J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997), p. 209.
18. Ibid., p. 202.
19. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, p. 406.
20. Ibid., p. 407.
21. Ibid., p. 421.
22. Sandra Whitworth, Feminism and international Relations: Towards a Political Economy of Gender in Interstate and Non-governmental Institutions (London: MacMillan, 1994), pp. 3-4, emphasis added.
23. Robert Keohane, 'International Relations Theory: Contributions of a Feminist Standpoint', Millennium (Vol. 18, No. 2, 1989), pp. 245-253.
24. Also on Keohane see Anne Sisson Runyan and V. Spike Peterson, 'The Radical Future of Realism: Feminist Subversions of International Relations Theory', Alternatives (Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991), p. 97; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postinodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 218; Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Dad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keoliane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1994) pp. 337-349; and Marysia Zalewski, 'Feminist Standpoint Theory Meets International Relations Theory: A Feminist Version of David and Goliath?', Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993) pp. 13-32.
25. Also on Keohane see Anne Sisson Runyan and V. Spike Peterson, 'The Radical Future of Realism: Feminist Subversions of International Relations Theory', Alternatives (Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991), p. 97; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postinodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 218; Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Dad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keoliane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1994) pp. 337-349; and Marysia Zalewski, 'Feminist Standpoint Theory Meets International Relations Theory: A Feminist Version of David and Goliath?', Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993) pp. 13-32.
26. Also on Keohane see Anne Sisson Runyan and V. Spike Peterson, 'The Radical Future of Realism: Feminist Subversions of International Relations Theory', Alternatives (Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991), p. 97; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postinodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 218; Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Dad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keoliane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1994) pp. 337-349; and Marysia Zalewski, 'Feminist Standpoint Theory Meets International Relations Theory: A Feminist Version of David and Goliath?', Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993) pp. 13-32.
27. Also on Keohane see Anne Sisson Runyan and V. Spike Peterson, 'The Radical Future of Realism: Feminist Subversions of International Relations Theory', Alternatives (Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991), p. 97; Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postinodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 218; Cynthia Weber, 'Good Girls, Little Girls and Dad Girls: Male Paranoia in Robert Keoliane's Critique of Feminist International Relations', Millennium (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1994) pp. 337-349; and Marysia Zalewski, 'Feminist Standpoint Theory Meets International Relations Theory: A Feminist Version of David and Goliath?', Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993) pp. 13-32.
28. Steve Smith, '"Unacceptable Conclusions" and the "Man" Question: Masculinity, Gender, and International Relations' in Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), The 'Man' Question in International Relations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), p. 62.
29. Bordo, op. cit., in note 16, p. 204. Responses to earlier versions of this paper are testament to this. Simply concentrating on the category of woman seems to evoke Pavlovian responses resulting in the ubiquitous assumpion that anyone using this category other than card carrying postmodernist feminists must be using it in an essentialist manner.
30. Chris Brown, 'Turtles All the Way Down': Anti-Foundationalism, Critical Theory and International Relations', Millennium (Vol. 23, No. 2, 1994), p. 231, emphasis added.
31. Fred Halliday, 'The Future of International Relations: Fears and Hopes' in Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory: Positivism and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 323.
32. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, p. 405, emphasis added.
33. Ibid., p.409.
34. Iver R. Neumann and Ole Wæver (eds.), The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? (London: Routledge, 1996).
35. Ibid., p. 291.
36. Bordo, op. cit., in note 16, p. 202.
37. Grant and Newland, op. cit., in note 6, p. 4.
38. Ibid, p. 5.
39. V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Rnnyan, Global Gender Issttes (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993), p. 10.
40. Bordo, op. cit., in note 16, p. 209.
41. Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23, p. 120.
42. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, p. 417.
43. Ibid, p. 417. Jones also insists that the word 'marginal' retains its pejorative connotations-that it is difficult to cultivate and yielding little profit'.
44. Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23, p. 134, emphasis added.
45. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, p. 423, emphasis in original.
46. Ibid., p. 423.
47. Ibid., pp. 425- 426 and p. 428.
48. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, pp. 424-425.
49. Darryl Jarvis, 'Feminist Post-Modernisms and Disciplinary Subversion: Beyond the Third Debate', paper presented at the ISA conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, March 1998, p. 25; Smith, op. cit., in note 24, p. 69: 'men as well as women are victims...in a world of war, they are literally victims'.
50. Jones, op. cit., in note 13, p. 421. There is a difference between placing man at the centre of the gender debate in order to re-assert his traditional position and placing the subject of man at the centre precisely to question the assumption of his 'traditional place'. On the latter see Zalewski and Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
51. Daniel Price, Without a Woman to Read (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997), p. 3.
52. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
53. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
54. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
55. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
56. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
57. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
58. For example, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Poliltcs (London: Pandora, 1989); The Morning After: Sexual Politics after the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Rebecca Grant and Kathleen Newland, op. cit., in note 6; Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (eds.), Feminism/Postmodernism/Development (London: Routledge, 1995); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women (London: Routledge, 1996); V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States, op. cit., in note 2; V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan, op. cit., in note 35; Jill Steans, Gender in International Relations (Oxford: Polity, 1997); Christine Sylvester, op. cit., in note 23; J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1992); Sandra Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21; Marysia Zalewski and Jane Parpart (eds.), op. cit., in note 24.
59. Examples include, Margot Light and Fred Halliday, 'Gender and International Relations' in A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light (eds.), Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter, 1994), pp. 45-55; Christine Sylvester, 'The Contributions of Feminist theory to international relations' in Smith, Booth and Zalewski (eds.), op. cit., in note 27, pp. 254-278.
60. Examples include, Margot Light and Fred Halliday, 'Gender and International Relations' in A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light (eds.), Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter, 1994), pp. 45-55; Christine Sylvester, 'The Contributions of Feminist theory to international relations' in Smith, Booth and Zalewski (eds.), op. cit., in note 27, pp. 254-278.
61. Examples include, Murphy, op. cit., in note 3: Marysia Zalewski, 'Well What Is The Feminist Perspective on Bosnia?', International Affairs (Vol. 71, No. 2, 1995), pp. 339-356; Charlotte Bretherton, 'Global Environmental Politics: Putting Gender on the Agenda?', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 85-100; Palena Neale, 'The Bodies of Christ as International Bodies: the Holy See, Wom(b)an and the Cairo Conference', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 101-118.
62. Examples include, Murphy, op. cit., in note 3: Marysia Zalewski, 'Well What Is The Feminist Perspective on Bosnia?', International Affairs (Vol. 71, No. 2, 1995), pp. 339-356; Charlotte Bretherton, 'Global Environmental Politics: Putting Gender on the Agenda?', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 85-100; Palena Neale, 'The Bodies of Christ as International Bodies: the Holy See, Wom(b)an and the Cairo Conference', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 101-118.
63. Examples include, Murphy, op. cit., in note 3: Marysia Zalewski, 'Well What Is The Feminist Perspective on Bosnia?', International Affairs (Vol. 71, No. 2, 1995), pp. 339-356; Charlotte Bretherton, 'Global Environmental Politics: Putting Gender on the Agenda?', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 85-100; Palena Neale, 'The Bodies of Christ as International Bodies: the Holy See, Wom(b)an and the Cairo Conference', Review of International Studies (Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998), pp. 101-118.
64. For example the recent mini debate in International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 41, No. 4, 1997) and (Vol. 41, No.1, 1998).
65. For example the recent mini debate in International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 41, No. 4, 1997) and (Vol. 41, No.1, 1998).
66. Christine Sylvester (ed.), 'Special Issue: Feminists Write International Relations', Alternatives (Vol. 18, No. 1, 1993); Millennium, op. cit., in note 1; Eric Giordano and Kimberly Silver (eds.), 'Special Issue: Gender in International Relations', The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993).
67. Christine Sylvester (ed.), 'Special Issue: Feminists Write International Relations', Alternatives (Vol. 18, No. 1, 1993); Millennium, op. cit., in note 1; Eric Giordano and Kimberly Silver (eds.), 'Special Issue: Gender in International Relations', The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993).
68. Maia Ettinger, 'The Pocahontas Paradigm, or Will the Subaltern Please Shut Up?', in Linda Gerber (ed.). Tilting the Tower (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 51.
69. Ibid., pp. 52-53.
70. Whitworth, op. cit., in note 21, p. 2.
71. Pettman, op. cit., in note 48, p. viii. V. Spike Peterson has frequently written about the disruptive effects of the category of woman on International Relations. See, for example, Peterson, op. cit., in note 2.
72. Trinh T. Minh-Ha, When the Moon Waxes Red (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 17.
73. Ettinger, op. cit., in note 53, p. 51.
74. Adam Joncs, op. cit., in note 13, pp. 424-425.
75. Ettinger, op. cit., in note 53, p. 51.
76. See Michael Kimmell's work on the 'masculine sense of entitlement'. For example, Michael Kimmel (ed.), Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987), and The Politics of Manhood: Profeminist Men Respond to the Mythopoetic Men's Movement (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995).
77. See Michael Kimmell's work on the 'masculine sense of entitlement'. For example, Michael Kimmel (ed.), Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987), and The Politics of Manhood: Profeminist Men Respond to the Mythopoetic Men's Movement (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995).
78. Fred Halliday and Justin Rosenberg, 'Interview with Ken Waltz', Review of International Studies (Vol.24, No. 3, 1998), p. 386.
79. Charles W. Kegley, Jr. and Eugene R. Wittkopf, World Politics: Trends and Transformation, Fifth Edition (London: Macmillan, 1995).
80. Ibid., p. 35.
81. Brown, op. cit., in note 26, p. 229.
82. On space/place see Gillian Rose, Feminism and Geography: the Limits of Geographical Knowledge (Cambridge: Polity, 1993).
83. Mervyn Frost, Ethics in International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
84. Brian White, Richard Little, and Michael Smith (eds.), Issues in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1997) p. 249.
85. Rosi Braidotti, 'Envy: or With My Brains and Your Looks', Alice Jardine and Paul Smith (eds)., Men in Feminism (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 236. See also Ellen Feder and Emily Zakin, 'Flirting with the Truth' in Ellen K. Feder, Mary C. Rawlinson, and Emily Zakin (eds.), Derrida and Feminism: Recasting the Question of Woman (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 21.
86. Rosi Braidotti, 'Envy: or With My Brains and Your Looks', Alice Jardine and Paul Smith (eds)., Men in Feminism (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 236. See also Ellen Feder and Emily Zakin, 'Flirting with the Truth' in Ellen K. Feder, Mary C. Rawlinson, and Emily Zakin (eds.), Derrida and Feminism: Recasting the Question of Woman (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 21.
87. Jim George, Discourse of Global Politics: A Critical (Re)Introduction to International Relations (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), p. 26.
88. Braidotti, op. cit., in note 69, p. 236.
89. Pettman, op. cit., in note 48, p. viii.
90. Minli-Ha, op. cit., in note 57, p. 18.
91. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. H.M. Parshley (New York, NY: Vintage Hooks, 1974), p. xix.
92. Carol Colin, 'Wars, Wimps And Women: Talking Gender And Thinking War' in Miriam Cooke and Angela Woollacott (eds.), Gendering War Talk (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 232.
93. Minh-Ha, op. cit., in note 57, p. 17.
94. Interview with Luce lrigaray, 'The Power of Discourse and the Subordination of the Feminine' in Margaret Whilford (ed.), The Irigaray Reader (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), p. 122.
95. Diane Elam, Feminism and Deconstruction (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 27.
96. Asked at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio, 1851.
97. Feminists have consistently attempted to answer this question also.
98. Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990). The physiological justifications in the nineteenth century extended to the 'bigger is better' argument, implying that as women's brains are generally smaller than men's this meant that men were intellectually superior to women. But researchers keen to prove this point ran into a problem when they realised that this logically implied elephants and whales were intellectually superior to men. Joyan Saunders and Liss Platt, 'Brains on Toast: the Inexact Science of Gender' in Jennifer Terry and Melodie Calvert (eds.), Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life (London: Routledge, 1997) pp. 175-180.
99. Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990). The physiological justifications in the nineteenth century extended to the 'bigger is better' argument, implying that as women's brains are generally smaller than men's this meant that men were intellectually superior to women. But researchers keen to prove this point ran into a problem when they realised that this logically implied elephants and whales were intellectually superior to men. Joyan Saunders and Liss Platt, 'Brains on Toast: the Inexact Science of Gender' in Jennifer Terry and Melodie Calvert (eds.), Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life (London: Routledge, 1997) pp. 175-180.
100. Jane M. Ussher, Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991).
101. See arguments in Diana Fuss, Essentially Speaking (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 20-21. These beliefs are not limited to the discourses of International Relations.
102. Jacques Derrida, Positions, trans. A. Bass (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 39-47. See also, Susan J. Hekman, Gender and Knowledge (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1992), p. 171.
103. Jacques Derrida, Positions, trans. A. Bass (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 39-47. See also, Susan J. Hekman, Gender and Knowledge (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1992), p. 171.
104. Susan J. Hekman, op. cit., in note 84, p. 26.
105. Ibid., p. 170.
106. Carol-Anne Tyler, 'Desiring Machines: Queer Re-visions of Feminist Film Theory' in Mandy Merck, Naomi Segal, and Elizabeth Wright (eds.), Coming out of Feminism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), p. 155.
107. Judith Butler, 'For a Careful Reading' in Seyla Benhabib, Judith Butler, Drucilla Cornell and Nancy Fraser, Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 50.
108. De Pisan, cited in Carroll, op. cit., in note 4.
109. Trinh T. Minh-Ha, op. cit., in note 57, p. 12.
110. Judith Butler, Excitable speech: A Politics of the Performative (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 84.
111. See for example, Rosalind Sydie, Natural Women. Cultured Men: A Feminist Perspective on Sociological Theory (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1987); Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought, Second Edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); Helene Cixous and Catherine Clement, The Newly Born Woman, trans. B. Wing (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1986).
112. See for example, Rosalind Sydie, Natural Women. Cultured Men: A Feminist Perspective on Sociological Theory (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1987); Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought, Second Edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); Helene Cixous and Catherine Clement, The Newly Born Woman, trans. B. Wing (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1986).
113. See for example, Rosalind Sydie, Natural Women. Cultured Men: A Feminist Perspective on Sociological Theory (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1987); Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought, Second Edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992); Helene Cixous and Catherine Clement, The Newly Born Woman, trans. B. Wing (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1986).
114. J. Ann Tickner, 'You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists', International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 41 No. 4, 1997), pp. 611-632.
115. Butler, op. cit., in note 88, p. 127.
116. Irigaray, op. cit., in note 77, p. 126.
117. Hélène Cixous, 'Extreme Fidelity' in Susan Sellers (ed.), Writing Differences: Readings from the Seminar of Hélène Cixous (New York, NY: Open University Press, 1988), p. 20.
118. Diane Atkinson, Cartooning for Equality (London: Penguin Books, 1997), p. 9.
119. Ibid., p. 8.
120. The Guardian (27 October 1998) pp. 4-5.
121. Braidotti, op. cit., in note 69, p. 234.
122. Julia Krisleva, 'Woman Can Never Be Defined' in Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron (eds.), New French Feminisms: An Anthology (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1981), pp. 137-141.
123. Irigaray, op. cit., in note 77, p. 124.
124. I am not claiming that deconstruction does not have the capacity to alter or move identities - and I still would argue that the very 'nature' of the western cpistcmological framework implies a constant repetition of the characteristics and practices of the framework.
125. Butler, op. cit., in note 88, p. 131.
126. Judith Grant, Fundamental Feminism: Contesting the Core Concepts of Feminist Theory (London: Roulledge, 1993), p. 131.
127. Irigaray, op. cit., in note 77, p. 126.
128. Minh-Ha, op. cit., in note 57, p. 14.
129. Irigaray, op. cit., in note 77.