Communication and age in childhood political socialization: An interactive model of political development

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 75, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 699-718

  Eveland Jr , William P ^a   McLeod, Jack M ^b   Horowitz, Edward M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0007335103     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909807500406     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. The original data on which this paper is based were collected in collaboration with Zhongdang Pan, Steven H. Chaffee, Michael McDevitt, and Youngme Moon. The research was supported by the Program in Media and Democracy, Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, where Zhongdang Pan was an assistant professor at the time the data were collected.
2. Steven Chaffee, Jack McLeod, and Daniel Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns and Adolescent Political Participation," in Socialization to Politics: A Reader, ed. Jack Dennis (NY: John Wiley, 1973), 349-64; Jack McLeod and Steven Chaffee, "The Construction of Social Reality," in The Social Influence Processes, ed. James T. Tedeschi (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972), 50-99.
3. Steven Chaffee, Jack McLeod, and Daniel Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns and Adolescent Political Participation," in Socialization to Politics: A Reader, ed. Jack Dennis (NY: John Wiley, 1973), 349-64; Jack McLeod and Steven Chaffee, "The Construction of Social Reality," in The Social Influence Processes, ed. James T. Tedeschi (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972), 50-99.
4. Charles Atkin, "Effects of Campaign Advertising and Newscasts on Children," Journalism Quarterly 54 (autumn 1977): 503-508; M. Margaret Conway, Mikel L. Wyckoff, Eleanor Feldbaum, and David Ahern, "The News Media in Children's Political Socialization," Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (summer 1981): 164-78; Alan Rubin, "Child and Adolescent Television Use and Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 55 (spring 1978): 125-29.
5. Charles Atkin, "Effects of Campaign Advertising and Newscasts on Children," Journalism Quarterly 54 (autumn 1977): 503-508; M. Margaret Conway, Mikel L. Wyckoff, Eleanor Feldbaum, and David Ahern, "The News Media in Children's Political Socialization," Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (summer 1981): 164-78; Alan Rubin, "Child and Adolescent Television Use and Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 55 (spring 1978): 125-29.
6. Charles Atkin, "Effects of Campaign Advertising and Newscasts on Children," Journalism Quarterly 54 (autumn 1977): 503-508; M. Margaret Conway, Mikel L. Wyckoff, Eleanor Feldbaum, and David Ahern, "The News Media in Children's Political Socialization," Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (summer 1981): 164-78; Alan Rubin, "Child and Adolescent Television Use and Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 55 (spring 1978): 125-29.
7. For example, M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi, The Political Character of Adolescence: The Influence of Families and Schools (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974).
8. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, "Preface to Volume III," in Handbook of Child Psychology, 4th ed., ed. Paul H. Mussen (New York: John Wiley, 1983), viii-x; Judith Torney-Purta, "From Attitudes and Knowledge to Schemata: Expanding the Outcomes of Political Socialization Research," in Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy, ed. Orit Ichilov (New York: Teachers College Press, 1990), 98-115.
9. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, "Preface to Volume III," in Handbook of Child Psychology, 4th ed., ed. Paul H. Mussen (New York: John Wiley, 1983), viii-x; Judith Torney-Purta, "From Attitudes and Knowledge to Schemata: Expanding the Outcomes of Political Socialization Research," in Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy, ed. Orit Ichilov (New York: Teachers College Press, 1990), 98-115.
10. Yali Peng, "Intellectual Fads in Political Science: The Cases of Political Socialization and Community Power Studies," PS: Political Science and Politics 27 (March 1994): 100-108; David O. Sears, "Whither Political Socialization Research? The Question of Persistence," in Political Socialization, ed. Ichilov, 69-97.
11. Yali Peng, "Intellectual Fads in Political Science: The Cases of Political Socialization and Community Power Studies," PS: Political Science and Politics 27 (March 1994): 100-108; David O. Sears, "Whither Political Socialization Research? The Question of Persistence," in Political Socialization, ed. Ichilov, 69-97.
12. For example, Roberta S. Sigel, Political Learning in Adulthood: A Sourcebook of Theory and Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
13. Richard G. Niemi and Mary A. Hepburn, "The Rebirth of Political Socialization," Perspectives on Political Science 24 (winter 1995): 7-16.
14. Steven H. Chaffee, L. Scott Ward, and Leonard P. Tipton, "Mass Communication and Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 47 (winter 1970): 647-59,666; Pauline Marie Vaillancourt, "Stability of Children's Survey Responses," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (fall 1973): 373-87.
15. Steven H. Chaffee, L. Scott Ward, and Leonard P. Tipton, "Mass Communication and Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 47 (winter 1970): 647-59,666; Pauline Marie Vaillancourt, "Stability of Children's Survey Responses," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (fall 1973): 373-87.
16. See Kenneth L. Kolson and Justin J. Green, "Response Set Bias and Political Socialization Research," Social Science Quarterly 51 (December 1970): 527-38.
17. Niemi and Hepburn, "Rebirth of Political Socialization"; Roberta S. Sigel, "New Directions for Political Socialization Research: Thoughts and Suggestions," Perspectives on Political Science 24 (winter 1995): 17-22.
18. Niemi and Hepburn, "Rebirth of Political Socialization"; Roberta S. Sigel, "New Directions for Political Socialization Research: Thoughts and Suggestions," Perspectives on Political Science 24 (winter 1995): 17-22.
19. Chaffee, McLeod, and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns"; McLeod and Chaffee, "Construction of Social Reality."
20. Chaffee, McLeod, and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns"; McLeod and Chaffee, "Construction of Social Reality."
21. Charles Atkin, "Broadcast News Programming and the Child Audience," Journal of Broadcasting 22 (winter 1978): 47-61; Steven H. Chaffee and Albert R. Tims, "News Media Use in Adolescence: Implications for Political Cognitions," in Communication Yearbook 6, ed. Michael Burgoon (Beverly Hills: Sage), 736-58; Dan G. Drew and Byron B. Reeves, "Children and Television News," Journalism Quarterly 57 (spring 1980): 45-54.
22. Charles Atkin, "Broadcast News Programming and the Child Audience," Journal of Broadcasting 22 (winter 1978): 47-61; Steven H. Chaffee and Albert R. Tims, "News Media Use in Adolescence: Implications for Political Cognitions," in Communication Yearbook 6, ed. Michael Burgoon (Beverly Hills: Sage), 736-58; Dan G. Drew and Byron B. Reeves, "Children and Television News," Journalism Quarterly 57 (spring 1980): 45-54.
23. Charles Atkin, "Broadcast News Programming and the Child Audience," Journal of Broadcasting 22 (winter 1978): 47-61; Steven H. Chaffee and Albert R. Tims, "News Media Use in Adolescence: Implications for Political Cognitions," in Communication Yearbook 6, ed. Michael Burgoon (Beverly Hills: Sage), 736-58; Dan G. Drew and Byron B. Reeves, "Children and Television News," Journalism Quarterly 57 (spring 1980): 45-54.
24. Paul Allen Beck, "The Role of Agents in Political Socialization," in Handbook of Political Socialization, ed. Stanley Allen Renshon (New York: Free Press, 1977), 115-41; Chaffee and Tims, "News Media Use"; Conway et al., "The News Media"; Howard Tolley Jr., Children and War: Political Socialization to International Conflict (New York: Teachers College Press, 1973).
25. Paul Allen Beck, "The Role of Agents in Political Socialization," in Handbook of Political Socialization, ed. Stanley Allen Renshon (New York: Free Press, 1977), 115-41; Chaffee and Tims, "News Media Use"; Conway et al., "The News Media"; Howard Tolley Jr., Children and War: Political Socialization to International Conflict (New York: Teachers College Press, 1973).
26. Paul Allen Beck, "The Role of Agents in Political Socialization," in Handbook of Political Socialization, ed. Stanley Allen Renshon (New York: Free Press, 1977), 115-41; Chaffee and Tims, "News Media Use"; Conway et al., "The News Media"; Howard Tolley Jr., Children and War: Political Socialization to International Conflict (New York: Teachers College Press, 1973).
27. Paul Allen Beck, "The Role of Agents in Political Socialization," in Handbook of Political Socialization, ed. Stanley Allen Renshon (New York: Free Press, 1977), 115-41; Chaffee and Tims, "News Media Use"; Conway et al., "The News Media"; Howard Tolley Jr., Children and War: Political Socialization to International Conflict (New York: Teachers College Press, 1973).
28. Chaffee, Ward, and Tipton, "Mass Communication."
29. Atkin, "Effects of Campaign."
30. Rubin, "Child and Adolescent."
31. Conway et al., "The News Media."
32. Chaffee, Ward, and Tipton, "Mass Communication."
33. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Gina M. Garramone, "TV News and Adolescent Political Socialization," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 651-69.
34. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Gina M. Garramone, "TV News and Adolescent Political Socialization," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 651-69.
35. Dan Drew and Byron Reeves, "Learning From a Television News Story," Communication Research 7 (January 1980): 121-35; Dan G. Drew and Steven D. Reese, "Children's Learning From a Television Newscast," Journalism Quarterly 61 (spring 1984): 83-88.
36. Dan Drew and Byron Reeves, "Learning From a Television News Story," Communication Research 7 (January 1980): 121-35; Dan G. Drew and Steven D. Reese, "Children's Learning From a Television Newscast," Journalism Quarterly 61 (spring 1984): 83-88.
37. Chaffee, McLeod, and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns"; McLeod and Chaffee, "Construction of Social Reality"; Jack M. McLeod and Jane D. Brown, "Family Environment and Adolescent TV Use," in Children and Television, ed. Ray Brown (London: Collier MacMillian, 1976), 199-233.
38. Chaffee, McLeod, and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns"; McLeod and Chaffee, "Construction of Social Reality"; Jack M. McLeod and Jane D. Brown, "Family Environment and Adolescent TV Use," in Children and Television, ed. Ray Brown (London: Collier MacMillian, 1976), 199-233.
39. Chaffee, McLeod, and Wackman, "Family Communication Patterns"; McLeod and Chaffee, "Construction of Social Reality"; Jack M. McLeod and Jane D. Brown, "Family Environment and Adolescent TV Use," in Children and Television, ed. Ray Brown (London: Collier MacMillian, 1976), 199-233.
40. For example, Marilyn Jackson-Beeck, "Interpersonal and Mass Communication in Children's Political Socialization," Journalism Quarterly 56 (spring 1979): 48-53.
41. Ellen Wartella, "The Developmental Perspective," in Children Communicating: Media and Development of Thought, Speech, and Understanding, ed. Ellen Wartella (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979), 7-20.
42. Sigel, Political Learning, 1.
43. Charles J. Brainerd, Piaget's Theory of Intelligence (Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1978).
44. Steven H. Chaffee, Explication (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991), 64.
45. Chaffee, Explication, 66.
46. For example, see Sigel, Political Learning.
47. Daniel Bar-Tal and Leonard Saxe, "Acquisition of Political Knowledge: A Social-Psychological Approach," in Political Socialization, ed. Ichilov, 116-33.
48. Brainerd, Piaget's Theory.
49. Anna Emilia Berti, "The Development of Political Understanding in Children Between 6-15 Years Old," Human Relations 41 (June 1988): 437-46; Stanley Moore, James Lare, and Kenneth Wagner, The Child's Political World: A Longitudinal Perspective (Westport, CN: Praeger, 1985).
50. Anna Emilia Berti, "The Development of Political Understanding in Children Between 6-15 Years Old," Human Relations 41 (June 1988): 437-46; Stanley Moore, James Lare, and Kenneth Wagner, The Child's Political World: A Longitudinal Perspective (Westport, CN: Praeger, 1985).
51. Peng, "Intellectual Fads"; Sears, "Whither Political Socialization."
52. Peng, "Intellectual Fads"; Sears, "Whither Political Socialization."
53. It is important to distinguish between moderator and mediator variables. A mediating variable is often the process through which one variable influences another in an "indirect effect." The difference between a mediated relationship and a spurious relationship is theoretical. Alternatively, a moderator variable "partitions a focal independent variable into subgroups that establish its domains of maximal effectiveness in regard to a given dependent variable." Reuben M. Baron and David A. Kenny, "The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (December 1986): 1173-1182, see 1173.
54. Jack M. McLeod, William P. Eveland Jr., and Edward M. Horowitz, "Learning to Live in a Democracy: The Interdependence of Family, Schools, and Media" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1995).
55. Sandra Scarr-Salapatekand Philip Salapatek, Socialization (Columbus, OH: C.E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1973), see vii.
56. Moore, Lare, and Wagner, The Child's Political, 224.
57. Garrett J. O'Keefe and Kathaleen Reid-Nash, "Socializing Functions," in Handbook of Communication Science, ed. Charles R. Berger and Steven H. Chaffee (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1987), 419-45.
58. Bar-Tal and Saxe, "Acquisition of Political Knowledge,"; Gavriel Salomon, Interaction of Media, Cognition and Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979).
59. Bar-Tal and Saxe, "Acquisition of Political Knowledge,"; Gavriel Salomon, Interaction of Media, Cognition, and Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979).
60. Bar-Tal and Saxe, "Acquisition of Political Knowledge."
61. Salomon, Interaction of Media.
62. Cecile Gaziano, "Forecast 2000: Widening Knowledge Gaps," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 74 (summer 1997): 237-64; P.J. Tichenor, G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970): 159-70; K. Viswanath and John R. Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-Five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. Brant R. Burleson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
63. Cecile Gaziano, "Forecast 2000: Widening Knowledge Gaps," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 74 (summer 1997): 237-64; P.J. Tichenor, G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970): 159-70; K. Viswanath and John R. Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-Five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. Brant R. Burleson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
64. Cecile Gaziano, "Forecast 2000: Widening Knowledge Gaps," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 74 (summer 1997): 237-64; P.J. Tichenor, G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970): 159-70; K. Viswanath and John R. Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-Five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. Brant R. Burleson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
65. It could also be argued that political communication is a moderator of cognitive capacity effects, such that cognitive capacity only has an impact when there is political communication. Statistically, the test is the same. The distinction is at the theoretical level. At present there seems to be no reason that either, or both, could not be true. Therefore, it should be noted that either variable may moderate the effects of the other. For simplicity's sake, the study will be framed as if cognitive capacity is the moderator and political communication is the independent variable.
66. Steven H. Chaffee and Seung-Mock Yang, "Communication and Political Socialization," in Political Socialization, ed. Ichilov, 137-57.
67. Rubin, "Child and Adolescent."
68. Atkin, "Effects of Campaign."
69. Charles K. Atkin and Walter Gantz, "Television News and Political Socialization," Public Opinion Quarterly 42 (summer 1978): 183-98.
70. Gina M. Garramone and Charles K. Atkin, "Mass Communication and Political Socialization: Specifying the Effects," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (spring 1986): 76-86.
71. The Kids Voting program and the larger study from which this paper draws its data have been described elsewhere. See Jack M. McLeod, William P. Eveland Jr., and Edward M. Horowitz, "Going Beyond Adults and Voter Turnout: Evaluating a Socialization Program Involving Schools, Family, and Media," in Engaging the Public: How Government and the Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy, ed. Thomas J. Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998), 195-205.
72. For a description of and justification for the use of factor scores, see David J. Armor, "Theta Reliability and Factor Scaling," in Sociological Methodology 1973-1974, ed. Herbert L. Costner (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974), 17-50.
73. Gerald M. Kosicki and Jack M. McLeod, "Learning From Political News: Effects of Media Images and Information-Processing Strategies," in Mass Communication and Political Information Processing, ed. Sidney Kraus (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990), 69-83.
74. William P. Eveland Jr., "Motivation, Information Processing, and Learning From the News: Toward a Synthesis of Paradigms" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr., "The Process of Political Learning From the News: The Roles of Motivation, Attention, and Elaboration" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr. and Jack M. McLeod, "The Informational Role of Processing Strategies for Campaign News: Beyond Simple Exposure and Attention" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, 1995); Elizabeth M. Perse, "Media Involvement and Local News Effects," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (spring 1990): 17-36.
75. William P. Eveland Jr., "Motivation, Information Processing, and Learning From the News: Toward a Synthesis of Paradigms" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr., "The Process of Political Learning From the News: The Roles of Motivation, Attention, and Elaboration" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr. and Jack M. McLeod, "The Informational Role of Processing Strategies for Campaign News: Beyond Simple Exposure and Attention" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, 1995); Elizabeth M. Perse, "Media Involvement and Local News Effects," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (spring 1990): 17-36.
76. William P. Eveland Jr., "Motivation, Information Processing, and Learning From the News: Toward a Synthesis of Paradigms" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr., "The Process of Political Learning From the News: The Roles of Motivation, Attention, and Elaboration" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr. and Jack M. McLeod, "The Informational Role of Processing Strategies for Campaign News: Beyond Simple Exposure and Attention" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, 1995); Elizabeth M. Perse, "Media Involvement and Local News Effects," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (spring 1990): 17-36.
77. William P. Eveland Jr., "Motivation, Information Processing, and Learning From the News: Toward a Synthesis of Paradigms" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr., "The Process of Political Learning From the News: The Roles of Motivation, Attention, and Elaboration" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1997); William P. Eveland Jr. and Jack M. McLeod, "The Informational Role of Processing Strategies for Campaign News: Beyond Simple Exposure and Attention" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, 1995); Elizabeth M. Perse, "Media Involvement and Local News Effects," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (spring 1990): 17-36.
78. Factor analytic research by Jack McLeod and his students including the current authors, making use of data collected from adults in several contexts and over several data sets during the past decade, has identified three factors from a pool of nine to fifteen items - active processing, reflective integration, and selective scanning. The present study used six new items developed for use with children, and a principal components factor analysis with oblique rotation of these items revealed just two factors. The first factor clearly represented the active processing and reflective integration factors from past research, while the second factor represented selective scanning. Since selective scanning typically produces null or negative effects on political socialization criteria such as knowledge, only the active reflection factor was used in the present analysis.
79. For a description of the appropriate methodology, see William P. Eveland Jr., "Interactions and Nonlinearity in Mass Communication: Connecting Theory and Methodology," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 74 (summer 1997): 400-416.
80. Atkin and Gantz, "Television News"; Robert H. Prisuta, "The Adolescent and Television News: A Viewer Profile," Journalism Quarterly 56 (summer 1979): 277-82; Rubin, "Child and Adolescent."
81. Atkin and Gantz, "Television News"; Robert H. Prisuta, "The Adolescent and Television News: A Viewer Profile," Journalism Quarterly 56 (summer 1979): 277-82; Rubin, "Child and Adolescent."
82. Atkin and Gantz, "Television News"; Robert H. Prisuta, "The Adolescent and Television News: A Viewer Profile," Journalism Quarterly 56 (summer 1979): 277-82; Rubin, "Child and Adolescent."
83. O'Keefe and Reid-Nash, "Socializing Functions," see 436.
84. Eveland, "Interactions and Nonlinearity"; Gary H. McClelland and Charles M. Judd, "Statistical Difficulties of Detecting Interactions and Moderator Effects," Psychological Bulletin 114 (September 1993): 376-90.
85. Eveland, "Interactions and Nonlinearity"; Gary H. McClelland and Charles M. Judd, "Statistical Difficulties of Detecting Interactions and Moderator Effects," Psychological Bulletin 114 (September 1993): 376-90.
86. McClelland and Judd, "Statistical Difficulties."
87. Garramone and Atkin, "Mass Communication."
88. Peng, "Intellectual Fads."
89. Moore, Lare, and Wagner, The Child's Political; Scarr-Salapatek and Salapatek, Socialization.
90. Moore, Lare, and Wagner, The Child's Political; Scarr-Salapatek and Salapatek, Socialization.
91. Salomon, Interaction of Media.
92. W. Russell Neuman, Marion R. Just, and Ann N. Crigler, Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
93. Vaillancourt, "Stability of Children's."
94. Frederic M. Lord and Melvin R. Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1968); Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, 2d ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1978).
95. Frederic M. Lord and Melvin R. Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1968); Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, 2d ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1978).