Forecast 2000: Widening knowledge gaps

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 237-264

  Gaziano, Cecilie ^a  

^a Research Solutions Inc   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0031161686     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400202     Document Type: Article

References (245)

1. Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos, Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Peter M. Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," in Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, ed. P. M. Blau (NY: Free Press, 1975), 220-53 - social structures are defined by their parameters (criteria revealed by the social distinctions people make in their role relations, or social interaction, 221-22).
2. Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos, Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Peter M. Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," in Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, ed. P. M. Blau (NY: Free Press, 1975), 220-53 - social structures are defined by their parameters (criteria revealed by the social distinctions people make in their role relations, or social interaction, 221-22).
3. Frank Levy, "Incomes and Income Inequality," in State of the Union: America in the 1990s, vol. 1, ed. Reynolds Farley (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 1-57.
4. Edward N. Wolff, Top Heavy: A Study of the Increasing Inequality of Wealth in America (NY: The Twentieth Century Fund Press, 1995), 2; James P. Smith, Unequal Wealth and Incentives to Save (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1995), iii.
5. Edward N. Wolff, Top Heavy: A Study of the Increasing Inequality of Wealth in America (NY: The Twentieth Century Fund Press, 1995), 2; James P. Smith, Unequal Wealth and Incentives to Save (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1995), iii.
6. Sara McLanahan and Lynne Casper," Growing Diversity and Inequality in the American Family," in State of the Union: America in the 1990s, vol. 2, ed. Reynolds Farley (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 1-45.
7. John D. Kasarda, "Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs," in State of the Union, vol. 1, 215-67; William H. Frey, "The New Geography of Population Shifts: Trends Toward Balkanization," in State of the Union, vol. 2, 271-336.
8. John D. Kasarda, "Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs," in State of the Union, vol. 1, 215-67; William H. Frey, "The New Geography of Population Shifts: Trends Toward Balkanization," in State of the Union, vol. 2, 271-336.
9. Smith, Unequal Wealth, 22-29; Sandra Braman, "Information and Socioeconomic Class in U.S. Constitutional Law," Journal of Communication 39 (summer 1989): 163-79.
10. Smith, Unequal Wealth, 22-29; Sandra Braman, "Information and Socioeconomic Class in U.S. Constitutional Law," Journal of Communication 39 (summer 1989): 163-79.
11. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design; Robert D. Mare, "Changes in Educational Attainment and School Enrollment," in State of the Union, vol. 1, ed. Reynolds Farley (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 155.
12. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design; Robert D. Mare, "Changes in Educational Attainment and School Enrollment," in State of the Union, vol. 1, ed. Reynolds Farley (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 155.
13. Mare, "Changes in Educational Attainment," 177.
14. George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes, "The Uncertain Future of the Central City," Urban Affairs Quarterly 18 (1983): 455-72; Cecilie Gaziano, "Mass Communication and Class Communication," Mass Comm Review 16 (1989): 29-38.
15. George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes, "The Uncertain Future of the Central City," Urban Affairs Quarterly 18 (1983): 455-72; Cecilie Gaziano, "Mass Communication and Class Communication," Mass Comm Review 16 (1989): 29-38.
16. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 117, 148, 155.
17. David Hackett Fischer, The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History (NY: Oxford University Press, 1996), 246-58, 301-304.
18. Clarice N. Olien, George A. Donohue, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power: Evolution of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," in Mass Communication Review Yearbook, ed. E. Wartella, D. C. Whitney, and S. Windahl (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983), 455-61; Cecilie Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 5 (December 1988): 351-57.
19. Clarice N. Olien, George A. Donohue, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power: Evolution of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," in Mass Communication Review Yearbook, ed. E. Wartella, D. C. Whitney, and S. Windahl (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983), 455-61; Cecilie Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 5 (December 1988): 351-57.
20. David B. Truman, The Governmental Process; Political Interests and Public Opinion (NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971).
21. Vicki S. Freimuth, "The Chronically Uninformed: Closing the Knowledge Gap in Health," in Communication and Health: Systems and Applications, ed. E. B. Ray and L. Donohew (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1990), 171-86.
22. Smith, Unequal Wealth, 19-21.
23. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (NY: Free Press, 1994).
24. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 17. They also argue that the Herrnstein-Murray measure was only a test of information recall and effort given.
25. Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power"; Cecilie Gaziano, "Neighborhood Newspapers, Citizen Groups, and Public Affairs Knowledge Gaps," Journalism Quarterly 61 (autumn 1984): 556-66, 599; Oscar H. Gandy Jr., "The Surveillance Society: Information Technology and Bureaucratic Social Control," Journal of Communication 39 (summer 1989): 61-76.
26. Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power"; Cecilie Gaziano, "Neighborhood Newspapers, Citizen Groups, and Public Affairs Knowledge Gaps," Journalism Quarterly 61 (autumn 1984): 556-66, 599; Oscar H. Gandy Jr., "The Surveillance Society: Information Technology and Bureaucratic Social Control," Journal of Communication 39 (summer 1989): 61-76.
27. Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power"; Cecilie Gaziano, "Neighborhood Newspapers, Citizen Groups, and Public Affairs Knowledge Gaps," Journalism Quarterly 61 (autumn 1984): 556-66, 599; Oscar H. Gandy Jr., "The Surveillance Society: Information Technology and Bureaucratic Social Control," Journal of Communication 39 (summer 1989): 61-76.
28. P. J. Tichenor, G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970): 159-70; Phillip J. Tichenor, conversation with author, March 1981.
29. P. J. Tichenor, G. A. Donohue, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970): 159-70; Phillip J. Tichenor, conversation with author, March 1981.
30. Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236. Also see: Thomas Childers with Joyce A. Post, The Information-Poor in America (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1975); Elina Suominen, "Who Needs Information and Why," Journal of Communication 26 (winter 1976): 115-19.
31. Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236. Also see: Thomas Childers with Joyce A. Post, The Information-Poor in America (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1975); Elina Suominen, "Who Needs Information and Why," Journal of Communication 26 (winter 1976): 115-19.
32. Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236. Also see: Thomas Childers with Joyce A. Post, The Information-Poor in America (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1975); Elina Suominen, "Who Needs Information and Why," Journal of Communication 26 (winter 1976): 115-19.
33. Phillip J. Tichenor, Jane M. Rodenkirchen, Clarice N. Olien, and George A. Donohue, "Community Issues, Conflict, and Public Affairs Knowledge," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973), 45-79; G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media and the Knowledge Gap: A Hypothesis Reconsidered," Communication Research 2 (January 1975): 2-23; Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980), 175-203; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power."
34. Phillip J. Tichenor, Jane M. Rodenkirchen, Clarice N. Olien, and George A. Donohue, "Community Issues, Conflict, and Public Affairs Knowledge," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973), 45-79; G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media and the Knowledge Gap: A Hypothesis Reconsidered," Communication Research 2 (January 1975): 2-23; Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980), 175-203; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power."
35. Phillip J. Tichenor, Jane M. Rodenkirchen, Clarice N. Olien, and George A. Donohue, "Community Issues, Conflict, and Public Affairs Knowledge," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973), 45-79; G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media and the Knowledge Gap: A Hypothesis Reconsidered," Communication Research 2 (January 1975): 2-23; Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980), 175-203; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power."
36. Phillip J. Tichenor, Jane M. Rodenkirchen, Clarice N. Olien, and George A. Donohue, "Community Issues, Conflict, and Public Affairs Knowledge," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973), 45-79; G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media and the Knowledge Gap: A Hypothesis Reconsidered," Communication Research 2 (January 1975): 2-23; Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980), 175-203; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Structure, Communication and Social Power."
37. James S. Ettema and F. Gerald Kline, "Deficits, Differences, and Ceilings: Contingent Conditions for Understanding the Knowledge Gap, Communication Research 4 (April 1977): 179-202; Brenda Dervin, "Communication Gaps and Inequities: Moving Toward a Reconceptualization," in Progress in Communication Sciences, ed. B. Dervin and M. J. Voigt (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1980).
38. James S. Ettema and F. Gerald Kline, "Deficits, Differences, and Ceilings: Contingent Conditions for Understanding the Knowledge Gap, Communication Research 4 (April 1977): 179-202; Brenda Dervin, "Communication Gaps and Inequities: Moving Toward a Reconceptualization," in Progress in Communication Sciences, ed. B. Dervin and M. J. Voigt (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1980).
39. See Wilbert E. Moore, and Melvin M. Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance," American Sociological Review 14 (February 1949): 787-95; Jill Lorraine Parker, "Conditions Under Which Knowledge Gaps Occur," (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1987); Cecilie Gaziano and Emanuel Gaziano, "Theories and Methods in Knowledge Gap Research since 1970," in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. M. B. Salwen and D. W. Stacks (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 123-38; K. Viswanath and John Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. B. R. Burleson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
40. See Wilbert E. Moore, and Melvin M. Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance," American Sociological Review 14 (February 1949): 787-95; Jill Lorraine Parker, "Conditions Under Which Knowledge Gaps Occur," (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1987); Cecilie Gaziano and Emanuel Gaziano, "Theories and Methods in Knowledge Gap Research since 1970," in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. M. B. Salwen and D. W. Stacks (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 123-38; K. Viswanath and John Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. B. R. Burleson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
41. See Wilbert E. Moore, and Melvin M. Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance," American Sociological Review 14 (February 1949): 787-95; Jill Lorraine Parker, "Conditions Under Which Knowledge Gaps Occur," (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1987); Cecilie Gaziano and Emanuel Gaziano, "Theories and Methods in Knowledge Gap Research since 1970," in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. M. B. Salwen and D. W. Stacks (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 123-38; K. Viswanath and John Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. B. R. Burleson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
42. See Wilbert E. Moore, and Melvin M. Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance," American Sociological Review 14 (February 1949): 787-95; Jill Lorraine Parker, "Conditions Under Which Knowledge Gaps Occur," (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1987); Cecilie Gaziano and Emanuel Gaziano, "Theories and Methods in Knowledge Gap Research since 1970," in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. M. B. Salwen and D. W. Stacks (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 123-38; K. Viswanath and John Finnegan Jr., "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis: Twenty-five Years Later," in Communication Yearbook 19, ed. B. R. Burleson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1996), 187-227.
43. See Richard D. Brown, Knowledge Is Power: The Diffusion of Information in Early America 1700-1865 (NY: Oxford, 1989).
44. Cecilie Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap: An Analytical Review of Media Effects," Communication Research 10 (October 1983): 447-86.
45. One 1982 study not found previously was included this time: Robert E. Simmons and Eduardo Carlos Garda, "Dogmatism and the 'Knowledge Gap' Among Brazilian Mass Media Users," Gazette 30 (February 1982): 121-33. Not included: (1) ten studies in developing countries because such studies differ greatly in media and social characteristics from those in developed countries and deserve a separate analysis; (2) diffusion of innovations studies when they concern solely behavior as the dependent variable; and (3) philosophical discussions without data and those using the term "knowledge gap" inaccurately.
46. James S. Ettema, James W. Brown, and Russell V. Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Health Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (winter 1983): 516-27; Charles Thomas Salmon, "The Role of Involvement in Health-information Acquisition and Processing" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985); Kasisomayajula Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign: A Longitudinal Study of Two Community Pairs" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., Peter J. Hannan, and Russell V. Luepker, "Health and Knowledge Gaps: Some Lessons from the Minnesota Heart Health Program," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 712-26; K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, Phyllis Pirie, and David M. Murray, "Community Type and the Diffusion of Campaign Information," Gazette 54 (November 1994): 39-59.
47. James S. Ettema, James W. Brown, and Russell V. Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Health Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (winter 1983): 516-27; Charles Thomas Salmon, "The Role of Involvement in Health-information Acquisition and Processing" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985); Kasisomayajula Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign: A Longitudinal Study of Two Community Pairs" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., Peter J. Hannan, and Russell V. Luepker, "Health and Knowledge Gaps: Some Lessons from the Minnesota Heart Health Program," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 712-26; K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, Phyllis Pirie, and David M. Murray, "Community Type and the Diffusion of Campaign Information," Gazette 54 (November 1994): 39-59.
48. James S. Ettema, James W. Brown, and Russell V. Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Health Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (winter 1983): 516-27; Charles Thomas Salmon, "The Role of Involvement in Health-information Acquisition and Processing" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985); Kasisomayajula Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign: A Longitudinal Study of Two Community Pairs" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., Peter J. Hannan, and Russell V. Luepker, "Health and Knowledge Gaps: Some Lessons from the Minnesota Heart Health Program," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 712-26; K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, Phyllis Pirie, and David M. Murray, "Community Type and the Diffusion of Campaign Information," Gazette 54 (November 1994): 39-59.
49. James S. Ettema, James W. Brown, and Russell V. Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Health Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (winter 1983): 516-27; Charles Thomas Salmon, "The Role of Involvement in Health-information Acquisition and Processing" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985); Kasisomayajula Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign: A Longitudinal Study of Two Community Pairs" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., Peter J. Hannan, and Russell V. Luepker, "Health and Knowledge Gaps: Some Lessons from the Minnesota Heart Health Program," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 712-26; K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, Phyllis Pirie, and David M. Murray, "Community Type and the Diffusion of Campaign Information," Gazette 54 (November 1994): 39-59.
50. James S. Ettema, James W. Brown, and Russell V. Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Health Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (winter 1983): 516-27; Charles Thomas Salmon, "The Role of Involvement in Health-information Acquisition and Processing" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1985); Kasisomayajula Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign: A Longitudinal Study of Two Community Pairs" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., Peter J. Hannan, and Russell V. Luepker, "Health and Knowledge Gaps: Some Lessons from the Minnesota Heart Health Program," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 712-26; K. Viswanath, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, Phyllis Pirie, and David M. Murray, "Community Type and the Diffusion of Campaign Information," Gazette 54 (November 1994): 39-59.
51. Suzanne R. Yows, Charles T. Salmon, Robert P. Hawkins, and Richard R. Love, "Motivational and Structural Factors in Predicting Different Kinds of Cancer Knowledge," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 727-41; Eric S. Fredin, Teresa Haugen Monnett, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata: Gaps, Reverse Gaps, and Gaps of Disaffection," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 176-90; K. Viswanath, Gerald Kosicki, Eunkyung Park, and Eric Fredin, "Community Involvement, Community-Boundedness and Knowledge Gaps" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1993); Robert J. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties: Education, Communication, and the Knowledge Gap," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990); 554-66; Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42.
52. Suzanne R. Yows, Charles T. Salmon, Robert P. Hawkins, and Richard R. Love, "Motivational and Structural Factors in Predicting Different Kinds of Cancer Knowledge," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 727-41; Eric S. Fredin, Teresa Haugen Monnett, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata: Gaps, Reverse Gaps, and Gaps of Disaffection," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 176-90; K. Viswanath, Gerald Kosicki, Eunkyung Park, and Eric Fredin, "Community Involvement, Community-Boundedness and Knowledge Gaps" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1993); Robert J. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties: Education, Communication, and the Knowledge Gap," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990); 554-66; Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42.
53. Suzanne R. Yows, Charles T. Salmon, Robert P. Hawkins, and Richard R. Love, "Motivational and Structural Factors in Predicting Different Kinds of Cancer Knowledge," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 727-41; Eric S. Fredin, Teresa Haugen Monnett, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata: Gaps, Reverse Gaps, and Gaps of Disaffection," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 176-90; K. Viswanath, Gerald Kosicki, Eunkyung Park, and Eric Fredin, "Community Involvement, Community-Boundedness and Knowledge Gaps" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1993); Robert J. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties: Education, Communication, and the Knowledge Gap," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990); 554-66; Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42.
54. Suzanne R. Yows, Charles T. Salmon, Robert P. Hawkins, and Richard R. Love, "Motivational and Structural Factors in Predicting Different Kinds of Cancer Knowledge," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 727-41; Eric S. Fredin, Teresa Haugen Monnett, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata: Gaps, Reverse Gaps, and Gaps of Disaffection," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 176-90; K. Viswanath, Gerald Kosicki, Eunkyung Park, and Eric Fredin, "Community Involvement, Community-Boundedness and Knowledge Gaps" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1993); Robert J. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties: Education, Communication, and the Knowledge Gap," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990); 554-66; Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42.
55. Suzanne R. Yows, Charles T. Salmon, Robert P. Hawkins, and Richard R. Love, "Motivational and Structural Factors in Predicting Different Kinds of Cancer Knowledge," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 727-41; Eric S. Fredin, Teresa Haugen Monnett, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata: Gaps, Reverse Gaps, and Gaps of Disaffection," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 176-90; K. Viswanath, Gerald Kosicki, Eunkyung Park, and Eric Fredin, "Community Involvement, Community-Boundedness and Knowledge Gaps" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1993); Robert J. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties: Education, Communication, and the Knowledge Gap," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990); 554-66; Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42.
56. Michelle Courtney Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge - Media Use, Group Participation, Socioeconomic Status or Race Variables (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1992); Elaine B. Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government Under the Klieg Lights," Communication Research 4 (October 1984): 497-517.
57. Michelle Courtney Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge - Media Use, Group Participation, Socioeconomic Status or Race Variables (M.P.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1992); Elaine B. Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government Under the Klieg Lights," Communication Research 4 (October 1984): 497-517.
58. Machiko Rachel Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television in Providing Information on World News: A Test of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis (Television)" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1989); Edward J. Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information Through Mass Media: the Cooperative Extension Service, Knowledge Gaps and Information Equity" (M.S. thesis, Iowa State University, 1992); James B. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 37 (winter 1993): 83-94.
59. Machiko Rachel Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television in Providing Information on World News: A Test of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis (Television)" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1989); Edward J. Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information Through Mass Media: the Cooperative Extension Service, Knowledge Gaps and Information Equity" (M.S. thesis, Iowa State University, 1992); James B. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 37 (winter 1993): 83-94.
60. Machiko Rachel Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television in Providing Information on World News: A Test of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis (Television)" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1989); Edward J. Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information Through Mass Media: the Cooperative Extension Service, Knowledge Gaps and Information Equity" (M.S. thesis, Iowa State University, 1992); James B. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 37 (winter 1993): 83-94.
61. Dianne M. Rucinski and Choon Ryu, "Social Comparison and the Knowledge Gap" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, 1991); Perley Jean Frazier, "Community Conflict and the Structure and Social Distribution of Public Opinion" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1986); Zhongdang Pan, Ronald E. Ostman, Patricia Moy, and Paula Reynolds, "News Media Exposure and Its Learning Effects During the Persian Gulf War," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 7-19.
62. Dianne M. Rucinski and Choon Ryu, "Social Comparison and the Knowledge Gap" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, 1991); Perley Jean Frazier, "Community Conflict and the Structure and Social Distribution of Public Opinion" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1986); Zhongdang Pan, Ronald E. Ostman, Patricia Moy, and Paula Reynolds, "News Media Exposure and Its Learning Effects During the Persian Gulf War," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 7-19.
63. Dianne M. Rucinski and Choon Ryu, "Social Comparison and the Knowledge Gap" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, 1991); Perley Jean Frazier, "Community Conflict and the Structure and Social Distribution of Public Opinion" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1986); Zhongdang Pan, Ronald E. Ostman, Patricia Moy, and Paula Reynolds, "News Media Exposure and Its Learning Effects During the Persian Gulf War," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 7-19.
64. Nicholas P. Lovrich Jr. and John C. Pierce, "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena: Effect of Situation-Specific and Transsituational Factors," Communication Research 11 (July 1984): 415-34.
65. Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap," 459-60; Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Mass Media Flow," 160, who assumed no ceiling effects were likely as knowledge growth was unlimited, in theory.
66. Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap," 459-60; Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Mass Media Flow," 160, who assumed no ceiling effects were likely as knowledge growth was unlimited, in theory.
67. One study measuring depth knowledge of children gave "don't know" and no answers a score of "1," while correct answers = 2 and wrong answers = 0. The rationale for DK and NA to receive scores = 1 was not given; in the absence of any, this seems difficult to understand. The potential for error in creating knowledge scores seems somewhat high. See Michael McDevitt, Steven H. Chaffee, and Youngme Moon, with others, "Closing Communication Gaps: Effects of a Voting-enriched Curriculum," (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, May 1996).
68. Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap," 449, 463; Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Mass Media Flow," 165.
69. Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap," 449, 463; Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Mass Media Flow," 165.
70. Wayne Wanta and William R. Elliot, "Did the 'Magic' Work? Knowledge of HIV / AIDS and the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (summer 1995): 317-18. At times, it appears they confused knowledge gain with knowledge gap.
71. Paul Davidson Reynolds, A Primer in Theory Construction (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971), 13-17, 56. Intersubjectivity (agreement about meaning, as well as logical rigor) among scientists is one of several essential concepts for scientific knowledge.
72. Frazier, "Community Conflict," 1986; Heinz Bonfadelli, "Zur 'Increasing Knowledge Gap' Hypothese," Bertelsman Texte 7: Buch und Lesen (Gutersloh, W. Germany: Bertelsman, 1978), 71-90.
73. Frazier, "Community Conflict," 1986; Heinz Bonfadelli, "Zur 'Increasing Knowledge Gap' Hypothese," Bertelsman Texte 7: Buch und Lesen (Gutersloh, W. Germany: Bertelsman, 1978), 71-90.
74. Lennart Brantgärde, "The Information Gap and Municipal Politics in Sweden," Communication Research 10 (July 1983): 357-73; Fred Zandpour and Anthony R. Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects: Audience and Media Factors in Alcohol-Related Health Communications," Mass Comm Review 19:3 (1992): 34-41.
75. Lennart Brantgärde, "The Information Gap and Municipal Politics in Sweden," Communication Research 10 (July 1983): 357-73; Fred Zandpour and Anthony R. Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects: Audience and Media Factors in Alcohol-Related Health Communications," Mass Comm Review 19:3 (1992): 34-41.
76. Alice Munkhoff Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women About Gynecologic and Colorectal Cancer Screening Procedures" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1992); Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Fiona Chew and Sushma Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 271-87; Yuko Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis and Media Dependency," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 626-50; Zhongdang Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition from Mass Media: Cross-Generational Changes and Maintenance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).
77. Alice Munkhoff Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women About Gynecologic and Colorectal Cancer Screening Procedures" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1992); Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Fiona Chew and Sushma Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 271-87; Yuko Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis and Media Dependency," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 626-50; Zhongdang Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition from Mass Media: Cross-Generational Changes and Maintenance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).
78. Alice Munkhoff Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women About Gynecologic and Colorectal Cancer Screening Procedures" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1992); Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Fiona Chew and Sushma Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 271-87; Yuko Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis and Media Dependency," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 626-50; Zhongdang Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition from Mass Media: Cross-Generational Changes and Maintenance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).
79. Alice Munkhoff Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women About Gynecologic and Colorectal Cancer Screening Procedures" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1992); Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Fiona Chew and Sushma Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 271-87; Yuko Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis and Media Dependency," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 626-50; Zhongdang Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition from Mass Media: Cross-Generational Changes and Maintenance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).
80. Alice Munkhoff Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women About Gynecologic and Colorectal Cancer Screening Procedures" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1992); Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Fiona Chew and Sushma Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 271-87; Yuko Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis and Media Dependency," in Communication Yearbook 7, ed. R. N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 626-50; Zhongdang Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition from Mass Media: Cross-Generational Changes and Maintenance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990).
81. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps"; Viswanath et al., "Community Type." But see Geetu Melwani, K. Viswanath, Lee B. Becker, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Community Complexity and Knowledge Gaps: A Longitudinal Study of One Community" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1994). They argue data from a seventeen-year period in Columbus, OH, showed a declining association between knowledge of several issues and SES as the community became increasingly pluralistic. Topics were not comparable over time, however, and conclusions about trends are not possible.
82. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps"; Viswanath et al., "Community Type." But see Geetu Melwani, K. Viswanath, Lee B. Becker, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Community Complexity and Knowledge Gaps: A Longitudinal Study of One Community" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1994). They argue data from a seventeen-year period in Columbus, OH, showed a declining association between knowledge of several issues and SES as the community became increasingly pluralistic. Topics were not comparable over time, however, and conclusions about trends are not possible.
83. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps"; Viswanath et al., "Community Type." But see Geetu Melwani, K. Viswanath, Lee B. Becker, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Community Complexity and Knowledge Gaps: A Longitudinal Study of One Community" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1994). They argue data from a seventeen-year period in Columbus, OH, showed a declining association between knowledge of several issues and SES as the community became increasingly pluralistic. Topics were not comparable over time, however, and conclusions about trends are not possible.
84. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps"; Viswanath et al., "Community Type." But see Geetu Melwani, K. Viswanath, Lee B. Becker, and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Community Complexity and Knowledge Gaps: A Longitudinal Study of One Community" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1994). They argue data from a seventeen-year period in Columbus, OH, showed a declining association between knowledge of several issues and SES as the community became increasingly pluralistic. Topics were not comparable over time, however, and conclusions about trends are not possible.
85. Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement."
86. Salmon, "The Role of Involvement"; G. A. Donohue, C. N. Olien, and P. J. Tichenor, "Knowledge Gaps and Smoking Behavior" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Lancaster, PA, 1990).
87. Salmon, "The Role of Involvement"; G. A. Donohue, C. N. Olien, and P. J. Tichenor, "Knowledge Gaps and Smoking Behavior" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Lancaster, PA, 1990).
88. K. Viswanath, Emily Kahn, John R. Finnegan Jr., James Hertog, and John D. Potter, "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap: Effects of a Campaign to Reduce Diet-Related Cancer Risk," Communication Research 20 (August 1993): 546-63.
89. Reinhold Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited: Secondary Analyses from Germany," European Journal of Communication 6 (March 1991): 77-93.
90. Jan Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity and the Knowledge Gap," European Journal of Communication 6 (December 1991): 499-522.
91. Wai Hung Pun, "News Infographies and Knowledge Gap" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas-Austin, 1991).
92. Ann-Marie Nazzaro, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Salience in the Context of Health Maintenance Organizations and the Elderly" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989).
93. Phillip J. Tichenor, Clarice N. Olien, and George A. Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies on Knowledge Gap in Small Towns," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer-autumn 1987): 329-36.
94. Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
95. Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement."
96. Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement."
97. Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women."
98. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps."
99. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects in a Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Campaign"; Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps."
100. Childers with Post, "The Information-Poor"; Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap."
101. Childers with Post, "The Information-Poor"; Gaziano, "The Knowledge Gap."
102. Alfred G. Smith, "The Primary Resource," Journal of Communication 25 (spring 1975): 15-20; John T. McNelly, "Mass Media and Information Redistribution," Journal of Environmental Education 5:1 (1973): 31-36.
103. Alfred G. Smith, "The Primary Resource," Journal of Communication 25 (spring 1975): 15-20; John T. McNelly, "Mass Media and Information Redistribution," Journal of Environmental Education 5:1 (1973): 31-36.
104. Whether or not control is perceived as functional or beneficial depends upon one's location in the social structure: G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 652-53; Moore and Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance." Also see: Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236; Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 104.
105. Whether or not control is perceived as functional or beneficial depends upon one's location in the social structure: G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 652-53; Moore and Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance." Also see: Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236; Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 104.
106. Whether or not control is perceived as functional or beneficial depends upon one's location in the social structure: G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 652-53; Moore and Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance." Also see: Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236; Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 104.
107. Whether or not control is perceived as functional or beneficial depends upon one's location in the social structure: G. A. Donohue, P. J. Tichenor, and C. N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 652-53; Moore and Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance." Also see: Blau, "Parameters of Social Structure," 236; Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 104.
108. Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
109. Readership and distribution gaps may be a condition for knowledge gaps between communities: Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies"; George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Metro Daily Pullback and Knowledge Gaps: Within and Between Communities," Communication Research 13 (July 1986): 453-71.
110. Readership and distribution gaps may be a condition for knowledge gaps between communities: Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies"; George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Metro Daily Pullback and Knowledge Gaps: Within and Between Communities," Communication Research 13 (July 1986): 453-71.
111. C. N. Olien, G. A. Donohue, and P. J. Tichenor, "Media Mix and the Metro-Nonmetro Knowledge Gap: Information Deprivation in an Information Age?" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, 1990).
112. Frazier, "Community Conflict."
113. Charles T. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps in the First Decade of the Epidemic" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, 1994). This paper differs slightly from their 1996 Journal of Health Communication article with a similar name. Also, Alice M. Horowitz, Cecilie Gaziano, and Parivash A. Nourjah, "Cancer Knowledge Gaps Among Women Regarding Cervical and Colorectal Cancer" (paper presented to the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Norfolk, VA, May 1997).
114. Charles T. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps in the First Decade of the Epidemic" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, 1994). This paper differs slightly from their 1996 Journal of Health Communication article with a similar name. Also, Alice M. Horowitz, Cecilie Gaziano, and Parivash A. Nourjah, "Cancer Knowledge Gaps Among Women Regarding Cervical and Colorectal Cancer" (paper presented to the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Norfolk, VA, May 1997).
115. George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Media Access and Knowledge Gaps," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 4 (March 1987): 88.
116. Michael X. Delli Carpini, Scott Keeter, and J. David Kennamer, "Effects of the News Media Environment on Citizen Knowledge of State Politics and Government," Journalism Quarterly 72 (summer 1994): 443, 449, 453.
117. Cliff Zukin with Robin Snyder, "Passive Learning: When the Media Environment Is the Message," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (fall 1984): 629, 637.
118. I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for these points. See also: Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies"; Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien, "Metro Daily Pullback and Knowledge Gaps."
119. I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for these points. See also: Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies"; Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien, "Metro Daily Pullback and Knowledge Gaps."
120. Jack McLeod, Zhongdang Pan, and Dianne Rucinski, "Levels of Analysis in Public Opinion Research," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. T. L. Glasser and C. T. Salmon (NY: Guilford Press, 1995), 55-85; Zhongdang Pan and Jack M. McLeod, "Multilevel Analysis in Mass Communication Research," Communication Research 18 (April 1991): 140-73.
121. Jack McLeod, Zhongdang Pan, and Dianne Rucinski, "Levels of Analysis in Public Opinion Research," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. T. L. Glasser and C. T. Salmon (NY: Guilford Press, 1995), 55-85; Zhongdang Pan and Jack M. McLeod, "Multilevel Analysis in Mass Communication Research," Communication Research 18 (April 1991): 140-73.
122. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
123. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
124. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
125. Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited," 85; Lovrich and Pierce, "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena." Also see: Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," who argued that interest-based knowledge gaps declined more than education-based gaps in a national survey of a diet and health topic transmitted by a single television program. Interest and education gaps were very small and similar in magnitude, however.
126. Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited," 85; Lovrich and Pierce, "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena." Also see: Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," who argued that interest-based knowledge gaps declined more than education-based gaps in a national survey of a diet and health topic transmitted by a single television program. Interest and education gaps were very small and similar in magnitude, however.
127. Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited," 85; Lovrich and Pierce, "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena." Also see: Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming," who argued that interest-based knowledge gaps declined more than education-based gaps in a national survey of a diet and health topic transmitted by a single television program. Interest and education gaps were very small and similar in magnitude, however.
128. Nadine Carol Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising in Terms of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Yunhee Choe, "Situational Variables in Perception and Information Regarding Public Affairs," (Ph.D. diss., Ohio University, 1986); "Situational variables" combined with education to explain knowledge gaps on national budget deficit issues in Athens County, OH, because the less educated tended to be fatalistic and the more educated tended to be oriented toward problem solving. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" stated that entering education first in a hierarchical multiple regression resulted in education's explaining more variance than did interest. But when interest was first, it accounted for more variance. His published results presented education first (92).
129. Nadine Carol Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising in Terms of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Yunhee Choe, "Situational Variables in Perception
130. Nadine Carol Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising in Terms of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Yunhee Choe, "Situational Variables in Perception and Information Regarding Public Affairs," (Ph.D. diss., Ohio University, 1986); "Situational variables" combined with education to explain knowledge gaps on national budget deficit issues in Athens County, OH, because the less educated tended to be fatalistic and the more educated tended to be oriented toward problem solving. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" stated that entering education first in a hierarchical multiple regression resulted in education's explaining more variance than did interest. But when interest was first, it accounted for more variance. His published results presented education first (92).
131. Nadine Carol Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising in Terms of the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1990); McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Yunhee Choe, "Situational Variables in Perception and Information Regarding Public Affairs," (Ph.D. diss., Ohio University, 1986); "Situational variables" combined with education to explain knowledge gaps on national budget deficit issues in Athens County, OH, because the less educated tended to be fatalistic and the more educated tended to be oriented toward problem solving. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?" stated that entering education first in a hierarchical multiple regression resulted in education's explaining more variance than did interest. But when interest was first, it accounted for more variance. His published results presented education first (92).
132. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition," 222-23.
133. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties."
134. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Yows et al., "Motivational and Structural Factors"; Nazzaro, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Salience."
135. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Yows et al., "Motivational and Structural Factors"; Nazzaro, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Salience."
136. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Yows et al., "Motivational and Structural Factors"; Nazzaro, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Salience."
137. Ettema, Brown, and Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
138. Oscar H. Gandy Jr. and Mohamed El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs: The Palestinian-Israeli Conflict," Journalism Quarterly 62 (winter 1985): 777-83.
139. Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects." Unfortunately, this study confounded race with Hispanic ethnic identity, flawing the analysis.
140. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps."
141. Fredin, Monnett, and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata."
142. Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
143. Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
144. Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement."
145. Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
146. Lester W. Milbrath and M. L. Goel, Political Participation: How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics? 2d ed. (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1977).
147. David W. Moore, "Political Campaigns and the Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly 51 (summer 1987): 186-200.
148. An anonymous reviewer suggested this.
149. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps in the First Decade of the Epidemic," 14.
150. Rucinski and Ryu, "Social Comparison and the Knowledge Gap."
151. Yi-ChenWu, "Situational Theory and the Publics of a Communication Campaign of Earthquake Preparedness: A Discriminant Analysis," (Ph.D. diss., Southern Illinois University, 1992); James E. Grunig, "Publics, Audiences, and Market Segments: Segmentation Principles for Campaigns," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. C. T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 199-228; Choe, "Situational Variables."
152. Yi-ChenWu, "Situational Theory and the Publics of a Communication Campaign of Earthquake Preparedness: A Discriminant Analysis," (Ph.D. diss., Southern Illinois University, 1992); James E. Grunig, "Publics, Audiences, and Market Segments: Segmentation Principles for Campaigns," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. C. T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 199-228; Choe, "Situational Variables."
153. Yi-ChenWu, "Situational Theory and the Publics of a Communication Campaign of Earthquake Preparedness: A Discriminant Analysis," (Ph.D. diss., Southern Illinois University, 1992); James E. Grunig, "Publics, Audiences, and Market Segments: Segmentation Principles for Campaigns," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. C. T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 199-228; Choe, "Situational Variables."
154. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?"; Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
155. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?"; Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
156. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?"; Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
157. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?"; Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
158. Lemert, "Do Televised Presidential Debates Help Inform Voters?"; Sharp, "Consequences of Local Government"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
159. Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity."
160. Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Yuko Miyo Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Media Preference" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1986).
161. Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Yuko Miyo Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Media Preference" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1986).
162. Hanna Adoni and Akiba A. Cohen, "Television Economic News and the Social Construction of Economic Reality," Journal of Communication 28 (autumn 1978): 61-70.
163. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties."
164. Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
165. Larry Pearson, "Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph: Information Diffusion in a Media-Poor Environment," in Desert Storm and the Mass Media, ed. B. S. Greenberg and W. Gantz (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1993), 182-96.
166. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan and McLeod, "Multilevel Analysis in Mass Communication Research"; Leonard L. Chu, "Knowledge Gap: Theoretical and Practical Implications" (paper presented to the annual meeting of AEJMC, Memphis, TN, August 1985).
167. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan and McLeod, "Multilevel Analysis in Mass Communication Research"; Leonard L. Chu, "Knowledge Gap: Theoretical and Practical Implications" (paper presented to the annual meeting of AEJMC, Memphis, TN, August 1985).
168. Viswanath and Finnegan, "The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Pan and McLeod, "Multilevel Analysis in Mass Communication Research"; Leonard L. Chu, "Knowledge Gap: Theoretical and Practical Implications" (paper presented to the annual meeting of AEJMC, Memphis, TN, August 1985).
169. An anonymous reviewer suggested this idea.
170. Frazier, "Community Conflict."
171. Yows et al., "Motivational and Structural Factors"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps." Wanta and Elliot also had incorrect HIV / AIDS knowledge data but did not analyze them by education. They accepted false answers except for dental means as correct for AIDS transmission know-ledge, contrary to operational definitions used by Salmon et al.
172. Yows et al., "Motivational and Structural Factors"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps." Wanta and Elliot also had incorrect HIV / AIDS knowledge data but did not analyze them by education. They accepted false answers except for dental means as correct for AIDS transmission know-ledge, contrary to operational definitions used by Salmon et al.
173. George F. Bishop, Alfred J. Tuchfarber, and Robert W. Oldendick, "Opinions on Fictitious Issues: The Pressure to Answer Survey Questions," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (summer 1986): 240-50.
174. Eleanor E. Maccoby and John A. Martin, "Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent-Child Interaction," in Handbook of Child Psychology, vol. IV, ed. P. H. Mussen (NY: Wiley, 1983), 1-101.
175. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition."
176. McDevitt, Chaffee, and Moon, "Closing Communication Gaps."
177. Interviews on 6 December 1995 and 9 August 1996 with Martha Farrell Erickson, director, University of Minnesota Children, Youth, and Family Consortium, and an expert on attachment theory. Some children with insecure attachments do not fit these patterns because protective factors were present, such as knowing a caring adult when they were growing up or finding ways to resolve their painful backgrounds. Also, Martha Farrell Erickson and Cecilie Gaziano, "Implications of Attachment Theory for Knowledge Gap Research" (manuscript in preparation).
178. Rejecting mothers tend to have children with insecure avoidant attachments, and mothers who give mixed signals are likely to have children with insecure ambivalent attachments. Mothers of children with secure attachments tend to be consistent and positive in their communication with their children. See, e.g., Mary D. Salter Ainsworth, Mary C. Blehar, Everett Waters, and Sally Wall, Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978).
179. Martha Farrell Erickson, Jon Korfmacher, and Byron R. Egeland, "Attachments Past and Present: Implications for Therapeutic Intervention with Mother-infant Dyads," Development and Psychopathology 4 (1992): 495-507; Patricia M. Crittenden, "Social Networks, Quality of Childrearing, and Child Development," Child Development 56:5 (1985): 1299-1313; Marc F. Maden and David F. Wrench, "Significant Findings in Child Abuse Research," Victimology 2:2 (1977): 196-224.
180. Martha Farrell Erickson, Jon Korfmacher, and Byron R. Egeland, "Attachments Past and Present: Implications for Therapeutic Intervention with Mother-infant Dyads," Development and Psychopathology 4 (1992): 495-507; Patricia M. Crittenden, "Social Networks, Quality of Childrearing, and Child Development," Child Development 56:5 (1985): 1299-1313; Marc F. Maden and David F. Wrench, "Significant Findings in Child Abuse Research," Victimology 2:2 (1977): 196-224.
181. Martha Farrell Erickson, Jon Korfmacher, and Byron R. Egeland, "Attachments Past and Present: Implications for Therapeutic Intervention with Mother-infant Dyads," Development and Psychopathology 4 (1992): 495-507; Patricia M. Crittenden, "Social Networks, Quality of Childrearing, and Child Development," Child Development 56:5 (1985): 1299-1313; Marc F. Maden and David F. Wrench, "Significant Findings in Child Abuse Research," Victimology 2:2 (1977): 196-224.
182. Erickson, interview, 9 August 1996; Erickson, Korfmacher, and Egeland, "Attachments Past and Present."
183. Erickson, interview, 9 August 1996; Erickson, Korfmacher, and Egeland, "Attachments Past and Present."
184. Christel Hopf, "Authoritarians and Their Families: Qualitative Studies on the Origins of Authoritarian Dispositions," in Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today, ed. W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1993), 119-143; Simmons and Garda, "Dogmatism and the 'Knowledge Gap.'"
185. Christel Hopf, "Authoritarians and Their Families: Qualitative Studies on the Origins of Authoritarian Dispositions," in Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today, ed. W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1993), 119-143; Simmons and Garda, "Dogmatism and the 'Knowledge Gap.'"
186. Vincent Price and John Zaller, "Who Gets the News? Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research," Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (summer 1993): 133, 160.
187. Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasiexperimental Designs for Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963).
188. Steven H. Chaffee, Connie Roser, and June Flora, "Estimating the Magnitude of Threats to Validity of Information Campaign Effects," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. C. T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 285-301.
189. Salmon, "The Role of Involvement."
190. Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties."
191. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Media Mix"; Donohue, Olien, and Tichenor, "Knowledge Gaps and Smoking Behavior."
192. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Media Mix"; Donohue, Olien, and Tichenor, "Knowledge Gaps and Smoking Behavior."
193. Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Olien, Donohue, and Tichenor, "Media Mix"; Donohue, Olien, and Tichenor, "Knowledge Gaps and Smoking Behavior."
194. Viswanath et al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap."
195. Melwani et al., "Community Complexity and Knowledge Gaps."
196. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
197. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
198. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
199. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
200. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited."
201. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming."
202. Pun, "News Infographics" tested comprehension of three education groups; each subject read three news articles (infographics conditions: none, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional); two-dimensional infographics were found most effective in reducing differences between the most and least educated subjects. Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising" reported a knowledge gap on prescription drugs at Time 1 had disappeared by Time 2 two weeks later, using a convenience sample panel. Advertisements for fictitious prescription drugs were included both times with a pen and paper questionnaire. No media publicity or use was involved. Exposure to ads did not vary and a control group was lacking, thus containing a number of threats to external and internal validity.
203. Pun, "News Infographics" tested comprehension of three education groups; each subject read three news articles (infographics conditions: none, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional); two-dimensional infographics were found most effective in reducing differences between the most and least educated subjects. Butler, "An Investigation of Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising" reported a knowledge gap on prescription drugs at Time 1 had disappeared by Time 2 two weeks later, using a convenience sample panel. Advertisements for fictitious prescription drugs were included both times with a pen and paper questionnaire. No media publicity or use was involved. Exposure to ads did not vary and a control group was lacking, thus containing a number of threats to external and internal validity.
204. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
205. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
206. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
207. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
208. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
209. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
210. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
211. Fredin, Monnett and Kosicki, "Knowledge Gaps, Social Locators, and Media Schemata; Lovrich and Pierce "'Knowledge Gap' Phenomena"; the MHHP reports; Viswanath et. al., "Motivation and the Knowledge Gap"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Pearson, "Desert Storm"; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge Gaps"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
212. Brantgärde, "The Information Gap"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited"; Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity"; Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies."
213. Brantgärde, "The Information Gap"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited"; Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity"; Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies."
214. Brantgärde, "The Information Gap"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited"; Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity"; Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies."
215. Brantgärde, "The Information Gap"; Horstmann, "Knowledge Gaps Revisited"; Kleinnijenhuis, "Newspaper Complexity"; Tichenor, Olien, and Donohue, "Effect of Use of Metro Dailies."
216. Ettema, Brown, and Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
217. Ettema, Brown, and Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
218. Ettema, Brown, and Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
219. Ettema, Brown, and Luepker, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Moore, "Political Campaigns"; Viswanath et al., "Community Involvement"; Zandpour and Fellow, "Knowledge Gap Effects."
220. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
221. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
222. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
223. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
224. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
225. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
226. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
227. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
228. Chew and Palmer, "Interest, the Knowledge Gap, and Television Programming"; Frazier, "Community Conflict"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Griffin, "Energy in the Eighties"; Horowitz, "Gaps in Knowledge Among Women"; some portions of the MHHP surveys; McLeod and Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects"; Pan et al., "News Media Exposure"; Tomita, "The Role of Cable Television"; Wanta and Elliort, "Did the 'Magic' Work?" Pearson noted his telephone survey of rural, small urban, and Anchorage subsamples underrepresented rural households, which tended to be of lower SES and to lack phones ("Desert Storm and the Tundra Telegraph").
229. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis."
230. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis."
231. Pan, "Inequalities in Knowledge Acquisition"; Miyo, "The Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis"; Mulugetta, "Knowledge Gap Hypothesis."
232. Among the few studies which attempt to integrate knowledge gap concepts with other kinds of gaps are McDevitt, Chaffee, and Moon, "Closing Communication Gaps" and Jack M. McLeod, Carl R. Bybee, and Jean A. Durall, "Equivalence of Informed Political Participation: The 1976 Presiden-tial Debates as a Source of Influence," Communication Research 6 (October 1979): 463-87. Neither of these appears fully aware, however, of the degree of differentiation among social strata.
233. Among the few studies which attempt to integrate knowledge gap concepts with other kinds of gaps are McDevitt, Chaffee, and Moon, "Closing Communication Gaps" and Jack M. McLeod, Carl R. Bybee, and Jean A. Durall, "Equivalence of Informed Political Participation: The 1976 Presiden-tial Debates as a Source of Influence," Communication Research 6 (October 1979): 463-87. Neither of these appears fully aware, however, of the degree of differentiation among social strata.
234. Viswanath et al., "Health and Knowledge Gaps," 719.
235. Tichenor, Rodenkirchen et al., "Community Issues."
236. E.g., Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information"; Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
237. E.g., Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information"; Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
238. E.g., Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information"; Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
239. E.g., Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information"; Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
240. E.g., Berry, "What Matters Most in Predicting Health Knowledge"; Gandy and El Waylly, "The Knowledge Gap and Foreign Affairs"; Narigon, "Diffusion of Iowa State University Research Information"; Viswanath, "Knowledge Gap Effects"; Gaziano, "Community Knowledge Gaps."
241. In 1964, 80.8% of U.S. adults read a weekday newspaper in an average week; in 1995, 64.2% of adults did so. Newspaper Association of America, Newspaper Readership Trends - Daily, Sunday (1994); NAA Facts About Newspapers 1996, 711 Third Avenue, NY, NY 10017.
242. In 1964, 80.8% of U.S. adults read a weekday newspaper in an average week; in 1995, 64.2% of adults did so. Newspaper Association of America, Newspaper Readership Trends - Daily, Sunday (1994); NAA Facts About Newspapers 1996, 711 Third Avenue, NY, NY 10017.
243. Michael X. Delli Carpini and Scott Keeter, What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 177.
244. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 104, 152-53.
245. Perhaps a symposium or a series of symposia on the knowledge gap should be considered, including researchers and policy makers from such disciplines as mass communication, health, political science, sociology, economics, and counseling psychology, encompassing academic, government, nonprofit, and commercial realms.