The epidemiological legacy of war: The Philippine-American War and the diffusion of Cholera in Batangas and la Laguna, south-west Luzón, 1902-1904

War in History

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 29-64

  Smallman Raynor, Matthew ^a   Cliff, Andrew D ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0006048344     PISSN: 09683445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/096834450000700103     Document Type: Review

References (56)

1. John Bates Clark, Director, Division of Economics and History, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, introductory note in Friedrich Prinzing, Epidemics Resulting from Wars (Oxford, 1916), p.viii
2. See, e.g. Samuel Dumas and K.O. Vedel-Petersen, Losses of Life Caused by War (Oxford, 1923)
3. Rebecca Earle, '"A Grave for Europeans"? Disease, Death, and the Spanish-American Revolutions', War in History 3 (1996), pp. 371-83
4. Ralph Major, War and Disease (London, 1940)
5. Prinzing, Epidemics
6. Major, War, pp. 23-36
7. See also William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford, 1976), p. 105
8. For an overview of the issues, see Richard Garfield and Alfred Neugat, 'Epidemiologic Analysis of Warfare: A Historical Review', Journal of the American Medical Association CCLXVI (1991), pp. 688-92
9. Henry Lancaster, Expectations of Life: A Study in Demography, Statistics, and History of World Mortality (New York, 1990), pp. 314-40
10. Andrew Cliff and Peter Haggett, Atlas of Disease Distributions: Analytic Approaches to Epidemiological Data (Oxford, 1988), pp. 4-6
11. August Hirsch, Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology (London, 1883), pp. 394-493
12. Hirsch, Handbook, pp. 489-90
13. United States Bureau of the Census, Census of the Philippine Islands I-IV (Washington, DC, 1905), III, pp. 47-56. To place the cholera death toll in perspective, authoritative estimates of Filipino battle deaths during the 40-month duration of the Philippine-American War do not exceed 20 000
14. see Henry Graff, ed., American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection: Testimony Taken from Hearings on Affairs in the Philippirie Islands before the Senate Committee on the Philippines - 1902 (Boston, 1969), p. xiv
15. The analysis is summarized in Matthew Smallman-Raynor and Andrew Cliff, "The Philippines Insurrection and the 1902-4 Cholera Epidemic, I: Epidemiological Diffusion Processes in War', Journal of Historical Geography 24 (1998), pp. 69-89
16. The Philippine-American War and its consequences in South-west Luzón are outlined in Glenn May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippirie Province at War (New Haven, CT, 1991)
17. Ken de Bevoise, Agents of the Apocalypse: Epidemic Disease in the Colonial Philippines (Princeton, NJ, 1995), pp. 164-84
18. Reynaldo Ileto, 'Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the Philippines', in David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988), pp. 125-48
19. May, Battle, Rodney Sullivan, 'Cholera and Colonialism in the Philippines, 1899-1903', in Roy Macleod and Milton Lewis, eds, Disease and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, 1988), pp. 284-300
20. de Bevoise, Apocaifpse
21. Considerable uncertainty surrounds the accuracy of population registration under successive censuses taken by the Spanish administration (1887) and the US administration (1903), and this complicates any effort to assess population change and mortality in the period that encompasses the Spanish American and Philippine-American wars. For a discussion of the problem in Batangas province, see Glenn May, '150,000 Missing Filipinos: A Demographic Crisis in Batangas, 1887-1903', Annales de Dimographie Historique (1985), pp. 215-43
22. John Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898-1902 (Westport, CT, 1973)
23. Brian Linn, The US Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989)
24. John Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States (Pasay City, 1971-3)
25. See also James Blount, The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 (New York, 1912)
26. Graff, American Imperialism, Stuart Miller, 'Benevolent Assimilation': The American Conquest of the Philippine Islands, 1899-1903 (New Haven, CT, 1982)
27. Moorfield Storey and Marcial Lichauco, The Conquest of the Philippines by the United States, 1898-1923 (New York, 1926)
28. Richard Welch, Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1979)
29. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, I' and 'Philippines Insurrection, IF
30. de Bevoise, Apocalypse; Ileto, 'Cholera'
31. See Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, I'
32. For an outline of the progress of the war in Batangas and La Laguna, see Gates, Schoolbooks; Linn, Counterinsurgency; Glenn May, 'Filipino Resistance to American Occupation', Pacific Historical Review XLVIII(1979), pp. 531-56; May, Battle
33. Population concentration in Batangas is described in a series of papers and books by Glenn May, including Battle, pp. 242-69
34. 'Filipino Resistance'; 'The "Zones" of Batangas', Philippine Studies XXIX (1981), pp. 89-103
35. See also Miller, Benevolent Assimilation, pp. 208-9
36. Welch, Response, pp. 41-2
37. See Chief Surgeon's Report, Third Separate Brigade, cited in Ileto, 'Cholera', p. 129
38. Health conditions in the concentration zones have been the subject of a lively debate. See Gates, Schoolbooks; Linn, Counterinsurgency; May, Battle
39. Helmut Jusatz, 'Cholera', in G. Melvyn Howe, ed., A World Geography of Human Diseases (London, 1977), pp. 131-43
40. The nature of the cholera data included in the Public Health Reports is described in Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, F. A general overview of the Public Health Reports is given in Andrew Cliff, Peter Haggett, Matthew Smallman-Raynor, Donna Stroup and G. David Williamson, 'The Importance of Long-Term Records in Public Health Surveillance: The US Weekly Sanitation Reports, 1888-1912, Revisited', Journal of Public Health Medicine XIX (1997), pp. 76-84
41. Andrew Cliff, Peter Haggett and Matthew Smallman-Raynor, Deciphering Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888-1912 (Cambridge, 1998)
42. The weekly cholera dispatches, published in the Public Health Reports, form the basis of the better-known annual cholera reports that were to appear in contemporary editions of the annual Report of the Philippine Commission. See, e.g. US Philippine Commission, Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1903 (Washington, DC, 1904), part 2, appendix B
43. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, F, figure 2 and table 1
44. United States Public Health Service, Reports XVII (1902), p. 716
45. Speculation concerning the importation of cholera with fresh vegetables rested with the traditional use of human manure by Chinese farmers; see Sullivan, 'Cholera'. In his dispatch of 30 March 1902, the chief quarantine officer explained that Manila was the 'greatest vegetable market in the Orient, as nothing of that character is produced here, all such supplies have to be imported, and all green vegetables such as cabbage, celery, lettuce, and cauliflower have come from the Canton districts' (op. cit., pp. 1089-90). In a later communication, the quarantine officer dismissed speculation concerning another possible source of the disease (Hong Kong) on the grounds of available epidemiological evidence (op. cit., p. 1531)
46. See also Ileto, 'Cholera'. Op. cit
47. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, IF
48. See Ileto, 'Cholera', pp. 127-8
49. Andrew Cliff, Peter Haggett, J. Keith Ord and Roy Versey, Spatial Diffusion: An Historical Geography of Epidemics in an Island Community (Cambridge, 1981)
50. See e.g. Cliff and Haggett, Atlas, pp. 194-5
51. See Cliff et al., Spatial Diffusion, pp. 96-9 for full details
52. The technique of trend surface analysis is described in Peter Haggett, Andrew Cliff, and Allan Frey, Locational Analysis in Human Geography, 2nd edn (London 1977), pp. 379-84
53. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, 'Philippines Insurrection, F and 'Philippines Insurrection, IF
54. The minimum spanning tree is formally defined in Haggett et al., Locational Analysis, p. 132
55. Andrew Cliff and Keith Ord, Spatial Processes: Models and Applications (London, 1981), pp. 17-21
56. Cliff and Ord, Spatial Processes, p. 21