'A grave for Europeans'? Disease, death, and the Spanish-American revolutions

War in History

Volumn 3, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 371-383

  Earle, Rebecca ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33749708229     PISSN: 09683445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/096834459600300401     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Robert Robertson, 1790, quoted in William Bynum, 'Cullen and the Study of Fevers in Britain, 1760-1820', in W.F. Bynum and V. Nutton, eds, Theories of Fever from Antiquity to the Enlightenment, Medical History, Supplement 1 (London, 1981), p. 141
2. See e.g. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (London, Hutchinson, 1993), p. 361
3. Hugh Thomas, Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (London, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1971), p. 414
4. Michael Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower: The British Expedition to the West Indies and the War against Revolutionary France (Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 326-67
5. See also Piers Mackesy, The War for America, 1775-1783 (London, Longmans, 1964), pp. 6, 336, 526
6. For an accessible account of the Spanish-American revolutions, see John Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826 (New York, W.W. Norton, 1986)
7. For the choice of New Granada as a destination, see Edmundo Heredia, 'El destino de la expedición de Morillo', Anuario de Estudios Americanos XXIX (1972)
8. Julio Albi, Banderas olvidadas: el ejército realista en América (Madrid, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, 1990), pp. 403-5
9. Juan Marchena Fernández, Oficiales y soldados en el Ejército de America (Seville, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1983), pp. 210, 213, 214
10. For the effect of disease on the Spanish colonial army in Mexico, see Christon Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760-1810 (Albuquerque, Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1977), pp. 38-61
11. and Christon Archer, 'Combating the Invisible Enemy', New World II (1987)
12. Antonio Rodríguez Villa, El Teniente General Don Pablo Morillo, Primer Conde de Cartagena, Marqués de la Puerta (1778-1837) I (Madrid, Editorial América, 1920), p. 181. (NB: Two different editions of this work are cited in this paper. The first is a four-volume edition, published between 1908 and 1910. The second, cited here, is a shorter, two-volume edition version published in 1920. All citations which include the date 1920 refer to this later edition.)
13. Pablo Morillo to Francisco de Montalvo, Cartagena, 5 Feb. 1816, AGI, Papeles de Cuba, legajo 707. Also see Francisco Montalvo to Juan Sámano, Cartagena, 30 Jan. 1818, Los últimas virreyes de Nueva Granada, Relación de Mando del Virrey Don Francisco Montalvo y nolicias del Virrey Sámano sobre la pérdida del Reino (1813-1819), in Eduardo Posada and P.M. Ibáñez, eds, Biblioteca de la Juventud Hispano-Americana, Editorial América (Madrid, n.d.), pp. 94-5
14. Antonio Rodríguez Villa, El Teniente General Don Pablo Morillo, Primer Conde de Cartagena, Marqués de la Puerto (1778-1837) III (Madrid, Real Academia de la Historia, 1908), pp. 164-9
15. For military service during the eighteenth century, see Allan J. Kuethe, Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773-1808 (Gainsville, Univ. of Florida Press, 1978)
16. Diary of the Primer Batallón del Regimiento Infantería de Numancia, 15 Dec. 1817, AGI, Papeles de Cuba legajo 759A
17. José María Barreiro to Juan Sámano, Santa Fe, 2 Au̇g. 1818, Los ejércitos del Rey, 1818-1819 I, in Alberto Lee López, ed., Biblioteca de la Presidencia de la República (Bogotá, 1989), p. 39
18. Rodríguez Villa, Pablo Morillo ii (1920), p. 31
19. and José María Caballero, Diario, Biblioteca de Bogotá (Bogotá, Editores Villegas, 1990), p. 217. For a 'type of plague' in 1816, see Francisco Montalvo to Juan Sámano, Cartagena, 30 Jan. 1818, in Los últimas virreyes, p. 95
20. For illness in the republican armies, see Oscar Beaujón, 'La medicina en la Campaña del Sur', Boletín de la Acadrmia National de la Historia (Caracas) lvii (1974). For a comparison of the health of the two armies, see Simón Bolívar to Juan Bautista Arismendi, Carúparo, 26 June 1816, in Escritos del Libertador Ix (Caracas, Sociedad Bolivariana de Venezuela, 1973), pp. 285-7
21. @and Rafael Sevilla, Memorias de un oficial del ejército español, campañas contra Bolívar y los separatists de América (Madrid, Editorial América, 1916), p. 124
22. Marchena Fernández, Oficiales y soldados, pp. 219-20
23. and Antonio Van Halen to Miguel de la Torre, Caracas, Mar. 1821, AGI, Audiencia de Caracas, legajo 55. For shoes, see Relación de las prendas que se hallan, Mompós, 26 Nov. 1816, AGI, Papeles de Cuba, legajo 712
24. Bynum, 'Cullen and the Study of Fevers', p. 147
25. See Sevilla, Memorias, pp. 45, 144, 166, 198
26. For the treatment of yellow fever in Mexico, see Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, pp. 42-4
27. for altitude sickness, see Albi, Banderas Olvidadas, p. 162
28. and Peter Mathias, 'Swords and Ploughshares: The Armed Forces, Medicine and Public Health in the Late Eighteenth Century', in J.M. Winter, ed., War and Economic Development (Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975), pp. 78-9
29. See Francis Hall, Colombia: su estado actual (London, 1824)
30. repr. in David Sowell, ed., Santander y la opinión angloamericana (Santafe de Bogotá, Biblioteca de la Presidencia de la República, 1991), pp. 61-71
31. Francisco Montalvo to Juan Samano, Cartagena, 30 Jan. 1818, in Los últimas virreyes, pp. 136-7
32. See also Memorial de Francisco Flórez Moreno, Cádiz, 10 Jan. 1811, AGI, Ultramar, legajo 811, for remarks by a Spanish doctor about the state of health care in the Americas in 1789
33. and Marcelo Frías Núñez, 'Enfermedad y sociedad en la crisis colonial del antiguo regimen: Nueva Granada en el tránsito del siglo XVIII al XIX. Las epidemias de viruelas' (Tesina de Licenciatura, Centro de Estudios Históricos, Madrid, 1991), p. 66
34. Compare Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower, p. 374, for comments about British sailors' use of 'folk-medicine' (i.e. rum) in the West Indies
35. Beaujón, 'La medicina en la Campaña del Sur', pp. 720-1
36. For the climate debate, see Thomas Glick, 'Science and Independence in Latin America (with special reference to New Granada)', Hispanic American Historical Review lxxi (1991)
37. David Brading, The First America, the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State 1492-1867 (Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 89, 197, 428-32
38. and Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1993)
39. See Francisco Montalvo to Juan Samano, Cartagena, 30 Jan. 1818, in Los ültimos virreyes, p. 40
40. Oswaldo Díaz Díaz, La reconquista española II, Historia Extensa de Colombia VI (Bogotá, Academia Colombiana de Historia, Editorial Lerner, 1964), p. 285
41. and Juan Sámano to José María Barreiro, Santa Fe, 19 Nov. 1818, both in López, Los ejércitos del Rey I, pp. 68-70, 97-8
42. For concise comments about the contemporary status of doctors in England, see Roy Porter, Disease, Medicine and Society in England, 1550-1860 (London, Economic History Society, 1993)