Exploring the limits of consent: Conflict resolution in Sierra Leone

Millenium

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 845-860

  Shearer, David ^a  

^a INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR STRATEGIC STUDIES   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0004750842     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298970260030601     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Charles King, 'Ending Civil Wars', Adelphi Paper 308, International Institute for Strategic Studies (London: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 81.
2. The information presented in the discussion below is derived largely from observations in the field. Since 1989, the author has worked for Save the Children Fund (UK) and the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs in the conflicts in Sri Lanka, Iraq, Somalia, Rwanda, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.
3. Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 212. The other categories noted by Clapham are liberation movements, separatist insurgencies, and reform insurgencies.
4. See I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict: The Beginning, the Middle, and the Ends', in Joseph Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 511-33. See also I. William Zartman, 'Introduction', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Negotiating Internal Conflicts (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1983); and George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964).
5. See I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict: The Beginning, the Middle, and the Ends', in Joseph Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 511-33. See also I. William Zartman, 'Introduction', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Negotiating Internal Conflicts (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1983); and George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964).
6. See I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict: The Beginning, the Middle, and the Ends', in Joseph Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 511-33. See also I. William Zartman, 'Introduction', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Negotiating Internal Conflicts (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1983); and George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964).
7. See I. William Zartman, 'Negotiations and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict: The Beginning, the Middle, and the Ends', in Joseph Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 511-33. See also I. William Zartman, 'Introduction', in I. William Zartman (ed.), Negotiating Internal Conflicts (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Paul Pillar, Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1983); and George Modelski, 'International Settlement of Internal War', in James N. Rosenau (ed.), International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964).
8. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace (New York, NY: United Nations, 1995), p. 14.
9. Henry Kissinger, 'The Viet Nam Negotiations', Foreign Affairs (Vol. 47, No. 2, 1969), p. 214.
10. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
11. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
12. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
13. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
14. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
15. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
16. See Zartman, 'Negotiation and Prenegotiations in Ethnic Conflict', op. cit., in note 4; Montville (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Zartman, 'Introduction', op. cit., in note 4; Zartman (ed.), op. cit., in note 4; Pillar, op. cit., in note 4; Modelski, op. cit., in note 4; and Rosenau (ed.), op. cit., in note 4.
17. See I. William Zartman, 'The Unfinished Agenda: Negotiating Internal Conflicts', in Roy Licklider (ed.), Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), p. 20-36, and I. William Zartman, Ripe For Resolution: Conflict and Interaction in Africa, Second Edition (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1989).
18. See I. William Zartman, 'The Unfinished Agenda: Negotiating Internal Conflicts', in Roy Licklider (ed.), Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1993), p. 20-36, and I. William Zartman, Ripe For Resolution: Conflict and Interaction in Africa, Second Edition (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1989).
19. Zartman, Ripe For Resolution, op. cit., in note 8.
20. Stephen John Stedman, 'Negotiation and Mediation', in Michael E. Brown (ed.), The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), p. 374.
21. Stephen John Stedman, Peacemaking in Civil War: International Mediation in Zimbabwe, 1974-1980 (London: Lynne Rienner, 1991).
22. Roy Licklider, 'The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993', American Political Science Review (Vol. 89, No. 3, 1995), pp. 681-90.
23. Ibid., p. 684.
24. Stedman, op. cit., in note 10, p. 374.
25. UN Security Council, 'Report of the Secretary-General on Sierra Leone', United Nations (UN) Document, S/1997/80, 26 January 1997 (New York, NY: United Nations, 1997), p. 7.
26. See William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), and William Reno, 'African Weak States and Commercial Alliances', African Affairs: The Journal of the Royal African Society (Vol. 96, No. 383, 1997), pp. 165-85.
27. See William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), and William Reno, 'African Weak States and Commercial Alliances', African Affairs: The Journal of the Royal African Society (Vol. 96, No. 383, 1997), pp. 165-85.
28. World Bank, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1997).
29. Mark Bradbury, 'Rebels Without a Cause: An Exploratory Report for CARE Britain on the Conflict in Sierra Leone', unpublished report for CARE, Britain, 1995, p. 11.
30. Valentine Strasser, quoted in David Shearer and Alice Jay, International Crisis Group Report on Sierra Leone (London: International Crisis Group, Chatham House, 1996).
31. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Currey, 1996).
32. Bradbury, op. cit., in note 18, pp. 32-33.
33. David Keen, 'The "Sell-game": The Economics of Conflict in Sierra Leone', paper presented at the 'West Africa at War: Anarchy and Peace in Liberia and Sierra Leone?' conference at University College London, 21 October 1995.
34. Anonymous residents of Bo and Kenema, in interviews with David Shearer (Bo and Kenema, November 1995).
35. Reno, 'African Weak States', op. cit., in note 16.
36. Brigadier Maata Bio, Deputy Chairman of the NPRC, and who later deposed Strasser to become Chairman, had a sister in the upper echelons of the RUF.
37. David Keen, 'When War Itself is Privatized: The Twisted Logic that Makes Violence Worthwhile in Sierra Leone', Times Literary Service, 29 December 1995.
38. An additional 361,000 people were registered as refugees in neighbouring countries. The majority of the displaced sought refuge with family and friends in towns, such as Bo and Kenema. Numbers were, therefore, difficult to estimate but were believed to be in excess of 500,000 refugees. See UN Security Council, op. cit., in note 15, p. 7.
39. For a discussion of private military force, see David Shearer, 'Private Armies and Military Intervention', Adelphi Paper 316, International Institute for Strategic Studies (London: Oxford University Press, 1998).
40. Ibid. See also David Isenberg, 'Soldiers of Fortune Ltd.: A Profile of Today's Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firms', (Washington, DC: Centre for Defense Information, Monograph 1997, ).
41. Ibid. See also David Isenberg, 'Soldiers of Fortune Ltd.: A Profile of Today's Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firms', (Washington, DC: Centre for Defense Information, Monograph 1997, ).
42. Shearer, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 53-54. See also Jim Hooper, 'Peace in Sierra Leone: A Temporary Outcome?', Janes Intelligence Review (Vol. 9, No. 2, 1997), pp. 91-94.
43. Shearer, op. cit., in note 28, pp. 53-54. See also Jim Hooper, 'Peace in Sierra Leone: A Temporary Outcome?', Janes Intelligence Review (Vol. 9, No. 2, 1997), pp. 91-94.
44. See Herb Howe, 'Lessons of Liberia: ECOMOG and Regional Peacekeeping', International Security (Vol. 21, No. 3, 1996-97), p. 165.
45. Anonymous Branch Energy personnel, in interviews with David Shearer, July 1997.
46. Material for this section is based on interviews with Executive Outcomes, the kamajors, Sierra Leone Senior military personnel, and diplomatic staff in Freetown, October 1995, February 1996, and April 1997.
47. Richards, op. cit., in note 20, pp. 10-11.
48. Anonymous residents of Bo and Kenema, in interviews with David Shearer. Anonymous expatriate transport operators, in interviews with David Shearer.
49. Anonymous senior diplomat in a confidential interview with David Shearer, 24 April 1997.
50. Ibid.
51. A UN assessment mission a month after the signing of the peace accord, estimated the need for 740 personnel at a cost of $47 million for eight months. UN Security Council, op. cit., in note 15, p. 14.
52. Anonymous senior UN diplomat in an interview with David Shearer, 25 April 1997.
53. Anonymous senior Sierra Leonean government advisor in an interview with David Shearer, London, August 1997.
54. Until this point, former combatants of the RUF had reported the disintegration, poor morale, and lack of supplies in RUF camps. Surrendering RUF combatants in interviews with David Shearer, Makeni, April 1997, and staff of UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs in interviews with David Shearer, Freetown, April 1997.
55. Stephen Ellis, 'Liberia 1989-1994: A Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence', African Affairs (Vol. 94, No. 375, 1995), pp. 165-97.
56. See Colin Scott, with Larry Minear and Thomas G. Weiss, Humanitarian Action and Security in Liberia, 1989-1994 (Providence, RI: Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies, 1995).
57. Gerard Prunier, The Rwandan Crisis: History of a Genocide (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1995).
58. James Gow, Triumph of Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1997).
59. The Rt. Hon. Baroness Margaret Thatcher, 'Managing Conflict: The Role of International Intervention', speech to the Aspen Institute, Aspen, CO, 4 August 1995.
60. Roy Gutman, 'Bosnia: Negotiation and Retreat', in Barbara Benton (ed.), Soldiers for Peace: Fifty Years of United Nations Peacekeeping (New York, NY: Facts on File, 1996).
61. Licklider, op. cit., in note 12.
62. 'France Signs Accord on the Withdrawal of Troops', Associated Press, 6 December 1997.
63. 'The Future of UN Peacekeeping', International Institute of Strategic Studies, Strategic Comments (Vol. 3, No. 8, 1997).
64. Michael Ashworth, 'Papua PM Forced to Resign as Army Leader Wins Their Battle of Wits', The Independent, 27 March 1997, p. 15.
65. Lynne Duke, 'Military Role of the US in Rwanda was Extensive', Washington Post, 22 July 1997.