Dalit christians and identity politics in India

Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 16-23

  Wyatt, Andrew K J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0004433785     PISSN: 00074810     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14672715.1998.10411058     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. Christophe Jaffrelot presents a comprehensive account of this movement in The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s (London: C. Hurst, 1996).
2. Gail Omvedt, Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. xv-xvi.
3. I have not entered into the debate over whether identity is based on primordial characteristics or is subject to instrumental manipulation by political elites because much of the literature is concerned with ethnic identity and I do not consider caste to fall into that category. Some have suggested that the aggregation of caste groupings, such as the Yadavs, can be understood as a form of ethnic identity. I remain unconvinced because the link between the exclusive possession of a piece of territory and the ethnic group is missing. The case of the Dalit Christians does have parallels with the instrumentalist interpretation of ethnic identity as one can observe a metamorphosis as Christians become Dalit Christians. Dalit identity is a new form of identity that is linked to, but has outgrown, caste ties. It remains underdeveloped as the dalit elite is not in a strong position to advance the interests of the community. See Sudhir Kakar, "The Construction of a New Hindu Identity," in Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India 's Secular Identity, ed. Kaushik Basu and Sanjay Subrahmanyam (New Delhi: Penguin, 1996), pp. 211-12; M. S. A. Rao, "Some Conceptual Issues in the Study of Caste, Class, Ethnicity and Dominance," in Dominance and State Power in Modem India, vol. 1, ed. F. Frankel and M. S. A. Rao (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 38-39; Rarnashray Roy and Vijay Singh, "The Harijan Elite at the Crossroads: Results from a Survey," in Politics of Positive Discrimination: A Cross National Perspective, ed. Subrata Mitra (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1990), pp. 120-21.
4. I have not entered into the debate over whether identity is based on primordial characteristics or is subject to instrumental manipulation by political elites because much of the literature is concerned with ethnic identity and I do not consider caste to fall into that category. Some have suggested that the aggregation of caste groupings, such as the Yadavs, can be understood as a form of ethnic identity. I remain unconvinced because the link between the exclusive possession of a piece of territory and the ethnic group is missing. The case of the Dalit Christians does have parallels with the instrumentalist interpretation of ethnic identity as one can observe a metamorphosis as Christians become Dalit Christians. Dalit identity is a new form of identity that is linked to, but has outgrown, caste ties. It remains underdeveloped as the dalit elite is not in a strong position to advance the interests of the community. See Sudhir Kakar, "The Construction of a New Hindu Identity," in Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India 's Secular Identity, ed. Kaushik Basu and Sanjay Subrahmanyam (New Delhi: Penguin, 1996), pp. 211-12; M. S. A. Rao, "Some Conceptual Issues in the Study of Caste, Class, Ethnicity and Dominance," in Dominance and State Power in Modem India, vol. 1, ed. F. Frankel and M. S. A. Rao (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 38-39; Rarnashray Roy and Vijay Singh, "The Harijan Elite at the Crossroads: Results from a Survey," in Politics of Positive Discrimination: A Cross National Perspective, ed. Subrata Mitra (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1990), pp. 120-21.
5. I have not entered into the debate over whether identity is based on primordial characteristics or is subject to instrumental manipulation by political elites because much of the literature is concerned with ethnic identity and I do not consider caste to fall into that category. Some have suggested that the aggregation of caste groupings, such as the Yadavs, can be understood as a form of ethnic identity. I remain unconvinced because the link between the exclusive possession of a piece of territory and the ethnic group is missing. The case of the Dalit Christians does have parallels with the instrumentalist interpretation of ethnic identity as one can observe a metamorphosis as Christians become Dalit Christians. Dalit identity is a new form of identity that is linked to, but has outgrown, caste ties. It remains underdeveloped as the dalit elite is not in a strong position to advance the interests of the community. See Sudhir Kakar, "The Construction of a New Hindu Identity," in Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India 's Secular Identity, ed. Kaushik Basu and Sanjay Subrahmanyam (New Delhi: Penguin, 1996), pp. 211-12; M. S. A. Rao, "Some Conceptual Issues in the Study of Caste, Class, Ethnicity and Dominance," in Dominance and State Power in Modem India, vol. 1, ed. F. Frankel and M. S. A. Rao (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 38-39; Rarnashray Roy and Vijay Singh, "The Harijan Elite at the Crossroads: Results from a Survey," in Politics of Positive Discrimination: A Cross National Perspective, ed. Subrata Mitra (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1990), pp. 120-21.
6. This contrasts with the practical conduct of politics. There is evidence that identity has been a part of the electoral strategy of the Left over a long period. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, during the 1960s, the Communist Party fielded candidates knowing their caste background would make them more appealing to the voters. However, the Left, in general, has not been prepared to modify its theoretical position that caste is a superstructural consideration. A. P. Barnabas and Subhash C. Mehta, Caste in Changing India (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1965), p. 61.
7. Caste is a hierarchical system of kinship networks. It is driven by notions of ritual purity that, among other things, result in the exclusion of members of polluting groups. The varna system of classification sorts caste groups into four categories: the priestly Brahmin castes, the Kshatriya ruler/warrior castes, the Vaisya merchant castes, and the artisan Sudra castes. The reality is considerably more complex as the caste system is structured according to the rules observed by several thousand subcastes known as jati. The assumptions relating to pollution do not function in a linear fashion and, as one might expect in a country the size of India, social practice is subject to regional variation. Declan Quigley explores most of these issues in more depth in his book The Interpretation of Caste (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
8. D. L. Sheth, "Ram Manohar Lohia on Caste, Class and Gender in Indian Politics," Lokayan Bulletin (Delhi) 13, no. 2 (1996): 2-3.
9. Government of India, "Union Primary Census Abstract for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes," Census of India: Paper 1 of 1993 (Delhi: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, 1993), p. 2.
10. Eleanor Zelliot, From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement (New Delhi: Manohar, 1992), p. 267.
11. While the influence of Latin American liberation theology through the curriculum of various Indian theological colleges is apparent, dalit theology has much more in common with North American Black theology. For example the oppression associated with race can be analyzed in a similar way to that associated with caste. See Professor Aruldoss, "Dalits of India and Dalit Theology" (lecture given at the University of Bristol, 5 March 1997); James Cone, God of the Oppressed (London: SPCK, 1977).
12. While the influence of Latin American liberation theology through the curriculum of various Indian theological colleges is apparent, dalit theology has much more in common with North American Black theology. For example the oppression associated with race can be analyzed in a similar way to that associated with caste. See Professor Aruldoss, "Dalits of India and Dalit Theology" (lecture given at the University of Bristol, 5 March 1997); James Cone, God of the Oppressed (London: SPCK, 1977).
13. K. Wilson, The Twice Alienated: Culture of Dalit Christians (Hyderabad: Booklinks Corporation, 1982).
14. Anthony Raj, "The Dalit Christian Reality in Tamil Nadu," Jeevadhara (Kottayam) 22, no. 128 (1992): 102.
15. Sunil George Kurien, "Struggle for Survival: Experience of the Christian Dalits in Vijayapuram Diocese in Kerala," Religion and Society (Bangalore) 42, no. 2 (1995): 21.
16. Godwin Shiri, "The Wide Prevalence of Traditional Occupations among Christian Dalits: A Sign of Continued Oppression," ibid., p. 36.
17. Ibid., p. 27.
18. Government of India, A Report on [the] Problem of Untouchability (New Delhi: National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 1989).
19. Marc Galanter, Competing Equalities: Law and the Backward Classes in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 129-30.
20. D. Kooiman, Conversion and Social Equality in India: The London Missionary Society in South Travancore in the Nineteenth Century (New Delhi: Free University Press/Manohar, 1989); John C. Webster, The Dalit Christians: A History (Delhi: ISPCK, 1992), p. 70.
21. D. Kooiman, Conversion and Social Equality in India: The London Missionary Society in South Travancore in the Nineteenth Century (New Delhi: Free University Press/Manohar, 1989); John C. Webster, The Dalit Christians: A History (Delhi: ISPCK, 1992), p. 70.
22. Rev. Samuel Jayakumar, pastor and church historian, interview with the author, Oxford, 5 September 1995.
23. James Massey, "The Ingredients for a Dalit Theology," in A Reader in Dalit Theology, ed. Arvind P. Nirmal (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran Theological College, 1991), p. 147.
24. M. E. Prabhakar, "The Search for a Dalit Theology," in Towards a Dalit Theology, ed. M. E. Prabhakar (Delhi: CISRS/CDLM/ISPCK, 1989), p. 47.
25. V. Devasahayam, Outside the Camp: Bible Studies in Dalit Perspective (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran College, 1991), pp. 23-27.
26. Arvind P. Nirmal, "Towards a Christian Dalit Theology," in Nirmal, A Reader in Dalit Theology, p. 65.
27. Prabhakar, "The Search for a Dalit Theology," p. 48.
28. Aruna Gnanadason, "Dalit Women: The Dalit of the Dalit," in Nirmal, A Reader in Dalit Theology, pp. 130-31.
29. A. M. Abraham Ayrookuzhiel, "Dalit Theology: A Movement of Counter-Culture," in Prabhakar, Towards a Dalit Theology, pp. 96-103.
30. Jose Kananaikil, Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Orders (Amendment) Bill, 1990, part 3 of Scheduled Castes in Search of Justice (New Delhi: Indian Social Institute, 1993), p. 3.
31. John Dayal, editor of Mid-Day, interview with the author, New Delhi, 21 January 1997.
32. Webster, The Dalit Christians, p. 187.
33. Father Stan Lourduswamy, Secretary of Catholic Bishops' Conference of India, Commission for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, interview with the author, New Delhi, 29 March 1994.
34. "Christian Body to Support Parties Favouring Dalits," Asian Age (London), 23 March 1996, p. 4.
35. "Cracks over Quota," India Today, 30 September 1996, p. 16.
36. "Leaders Court Arrest for Dalit Christians," Times of India (New Delhi), 28 November 1996, p. 1.
37. "Bill on Dalit Christians to Be Passed," Asian Age, 6 March 1997, p. 4.
38. Ipe Joseph, Dalit Solidarity Programme Report: Four Regional Consultations (Delhi: ISPCK, 1994).
39. This has been a problem in Maharashtra where the pre-eminence of the Mahars has been resented by other untouchable castes. In Uttar Pradesh, groups like the Balmikis have resented the dominance of the Jatavs but have little choice but to join with them and back the Bahujan Samaj Party. Sudha Pai and J. Singh, "Politicisation of Dalits and Most Backward Castes: Study of Social Conflict and Political Preferences in Four Villages of Meerut District," Economic and Political Weekly 32 no. 23 (1997): 1357.
40. Sudipta Kaviraj, "On the Structure of Nationalist Discourse," in Social Change and Political Discourse in India, vol. 1 of State and Nation in the Context of Social Change, ed. T. V. Sathyamurthy (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 317-20.
41. "Cracks over Quota," India Today (30 September 1996): 16.
42. Andrew Wyatt, "Indian Christians and the 1996 Lok Sabha Elections," Contemporary Political Studies 1 (1996): 265-72.
43. Dilip M. Menon, Caste, Nationalism and Communism in South India: Malabar, 1900-1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3-4.
44. In the 1998 election the BJP gained25 percent of the vote. Its alliance partners secured another 11.2 percent of the vote. It is difficult to be certain that the vote for the BJP's allies was also a vote for the BJP. Yogendra Yadav and Alistair McMillan, "How India Voted," India Today International (16 March 1998), p. 29.
45. Paul R. Brass, "General Elections, 1996 in Uttar Pradesh: Divisive Struggles Influence Outcome," Economic and Political Weekly 32, no. 38 (1997): 2416.
46. James Manor, "Ethnicity and Politics in India," International Affairs 72, no. 3 (1996): 467.
47. Sheth, "Ram Manohar Lohia on Caste, Class and Gender in Indian Politics," p. 2.
48. G. K. Lieten, "Hindu Communalism: Between Caste and Class," Journal of Contemporary Asia 26, no. 2 (1996): 243-44.
49. Some activists have attempted to supplement the idea of a dalit movement with a wider notion of a Dalitbahujan people. The term "bahujan," literally translated as majority, is used to refer to all of those Indians who are not members of the elite twice-born castes and who constitute 85 percent of the population. However this term has yet to gain popularity. Kancha Illaiah, Why I Am Not a Hindu: A Sudra Critique of Hindutva Philosophy, Culture and Political Economy (Samya: Calcutta, 1996), p. viii.
50. Omvedt, Reinventing Revolution, pp. 160-62.
51. Zoya Hasan, "Power and Mobilization: Patterns of Resilience and Change in Uttar Pradesh Politics," in Frankel and Rao, Dominance and State Power in Modern India, pp. 190-91.
52. Saral K. Chatterji, "Why Dalit Theology?" in Nirmal, A Reader in Dalit Theology, pp: 31-32.