Embracing a suitable past: Independence celebrations under Mexico's second empire, 1864-6

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 249-277

  Duncan, Robert H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0001454078     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X98005045     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Maximilian to Karl Ludwig, n.p., 21 Sept. 1864, quoted in Egon Caesar Count Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte of Mexico, trans. by Catherine Alison Phillips (New York, 1968), p. 434.
2. Eric Hobsbawn, 'Introduction: Inventing Traditions', in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983). pp. 1, 12.
3. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn. (New York, 1991), pp. 11-12.
4. Article reprinted in the New York Times, 18 Nov. 1866.
5. Enrique Florcscano, 'Les Origines de la Mémoire Nationale la Célébration du Triomphe de l'Indépendance en 1821', in François-Xavier Guerra, Mémoires an Devenir: Amérique latine XVI-XX siêcle (Bordeaux, 1994), p. 163.
6. Lucas Alamán, Historia de Méjico desde los primeros movimicntos que prepararon su Independencia an el año de 1808 basta la época presente, vol. 5 (Mexico, 1969), p. 324; Enrique Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nationalismo a la luz del discurso canmemorativo (1825-1867) (Mexico, 1991), pp. 18-19.
7. Lucas Alamán, Historia de Méjico desde los primeros movimicntos que prepararon su Independencia an el año de 1808 basta la época presente, vol. 5 (Mexico, 1969), p. 324; Enrique Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nationalismo a la luz del discurso canmemorativo (1825-1867) (Mexico, 1991), pp. 18-19.
8. 'Introduction: Constructing Consent, Inciting Conflict', in William H. Beezley, Cheryl English Martin, and William E. French (eds.), Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance (Wilmington, Del., 1994), p. xiv.
9. Alamán, Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, p. 483. Iturbide's dissolution of Congress in October 1822 undoubtedly led to the deputies' low opinion of the emperor. After attempting to return from European exile, the former emperor was executed in 1824.
10. Jaime E. Rodríguez O., 'The Struggle for Dominance: The Legislature versus the Executive in Early Mexico' [in press].
11. Frequent republican president Antonio López de Santa Anna added 11 September to the list of independence celebrations. Although the date commemorated his victory over Spanish invasion troops at Tampico in 1829 - some eight years after independence - Santa Anna nevertheless considered the event as consummation 'of the glorious work of independence'. The anniversary, however, was observed only in those years that Santa Anna held office. Manual Dublin and José María Lozano, Legislatión mexicana, vol. 4 (Mexico, 1876), pp. 565-6.
12. William H. Beezley, 'Recreating the Creation of Mexico: Pondering Nineteenth-Century Celebrations of Independence', paper presented at the IX Conference of Mexican, United States, and Canadian Historians, Mexico City, Oct. 27-29, 1994.
13. Enrique Florescano, Memory, Myth, and Time in Mexico (Austin, 1994), p. 221.
14. Beezley, 'Recreating the Creation of Mexico'. In 1845, the junta patriótico distributed 590 pesos among forty widows and orphans, El Siglo XIX, 27 Sept. 1843; 15 Sept. 1850; 15 Sept. 1855.
15. Beezley, 'Recreating the Creation of Mexico'. In 1845, the junta patriótico distributed 590 pesos among forty widows and orphans, El Siglo XIX, 27 Sept. 1843; 15 Sept. 1850; 15 Sept. 1855.
16. Beezley, 'Recreating the Creation of Mexico'. In 1845, the junta patriótico distributed 590 pesos among forty widows and orphans, El Siglo XIX, 27 Sept. 1843; 15 Sept. 1850; 15 Sept. 1855.
17. Each year on the second Tuesday of July, the junta patriótica would convene to elect a new president and board members who then planned the upcoming festivities. The junta attracted many prominent names both liberal and conservative as officers and members. Though nonpolitical in principle, the composition of the junta often reflected the party or faction in power. Despite attempts to get government funding, the junta generally relied on private donations to stage the celebrations. See Michael Costeloe, 'The Junta Patriótica and the Celebration of Independence in Mexico City, 1825-1855', Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanas vol. 13, no. 1 (Winter 1997), pp. 21-53.
18. Although Aldama's warning to Hidalgo occurred at 2:00 a.m. on the 16th, custom was to celebrate at 11:00 p.m. on the previous night for 'public convenience', Niceto de Zamacois, Histona de Méjico desde sus titmpos mas remotos basta nuestros díns, vol. 17 (Mexico, 1881), p. 525.
19. Under the government of vice-president Bustamante, the first Iturbide celebration took place on 27 September 1830. But it was not until 1837 that the government officially entrusted the junta patriótica with organising both anniversaries on an equal footing, Alamán, Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, p. 483.
20. Other liberals like Mariano Otero (1941), Guillermo Prieto (1844), and José Maria Iglesias (1848) had kind words for Iturbide in their 16 September orations, Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nationalism, pp. 38-44, 49-50, 56-7. See also Javier Ocampo, Las ideas de an día (Mexico, 1969), pp. 158-68.
21. Other liberals like Mariano Otero (1941), Guillermo Prieto (1844), and José Maria Iglesias (1848) had kind words for Iturbide in their 16 September orations, Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nationalism, pp. 38-44, 49-50, 56-7. See also Javier Ocampo, Las ideas de an día (Mexico, 1969), pp. 158-68.
22. El Sigio XIX, 27 Sept. 1854.
23. Plasencia de la Parra, Independenci y nacionalismo, pp. 52-3, 59-65.
24. Fanny Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (London, 1987), p. 259.
25. William Parish Robertson, A Visit to Mexico by the West India Islands, Yucatan and United States, vol. 2 (London, 1853), pp. 275-6.
26. Ibid., pp. 291-2.
27. Among those honoured were Leandro Valle, Santos Degollado, Melchor Ocampo, and later Ignacio Zaragoza; Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nacionalismo, pp. 14, 99-100, 116; El Siglo XIX, 15 Sept. 1861.
28. Among those honoured were Leandro Valle, Santos Degollado, Melchor Ocampo, and later Ignacio Zaragoza; Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nacionalismo, pp. 14, 99-100, 116; El Siglo XIX, 15 Sept. 1861.
29. El Siglo XIX, 18 Sept. 1861, 26 Sept. 1862. Juan Álvarez, for example, became the president of the Junta patriótica in 1855.
30. Eric Hobsbawn, 'Introduction: Inventing Traditions', pp. 1, 12.
31. Mexico City newspapers regularly gave detailed descriptions of provincial 'September anniversaries' elsewhere. These celebrations seem to have differed more in scale than in substance from their Mexico City counterpart.
32. Benedict Anderson points out the solidarity - 'unisonance' as he terms it - present in shared, simultaneous events such as singing national anthems, Imagined Communities, P. 145.
33. For a description of the 1864 festivities in the Yucatán see Faulo Sánchez Novelo, Yucatán durante la intervención francesa (1863-1867) (Mérida, 1983), pp. 68-70.
34. Joan Haslip, The Crown of Mexico: Maximilian and His Empress Carlota (New York, 1971), PP. 112, 117-8.
35. Maximilian to Archduchess Sophie, [Autumn] 1858, in Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte, pp. 83-4.
36. Maximilian to Velázquez de León, Palace of Mexico, 14 June 1864 in Alocuciones, cartas oficiales, é instrucciones del Emperador Maximiliano durante los añas 1864, 1865, 1866 (Mexico, 1867), pp. 43-4. The arch would be placed at the entrance to the Avenida de la Piedad to be renamed the Paseo de la Emperatriz Carlota.
37. El Periódico Oficial del Imperio Mexicano, 12 July 1864.
38. El Periódic Oficial del Imperio Mexicano, 20 Aug. 1863.
39. The discourses are reprinted in Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 16, pp. 714-17.
40. The circular is reprinted in his Historia Je Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 345, 521-2. In Toluca, the city mistakenly celebrated 27 September since the new circular had arrived late, El Periódico Oficial del Imperio, 8 Oct. 1864.
41. The circular is reprinted in his Historia Je Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 345, 521-2. In Toluca, the city mistakenly celebrated 27 September since the new circular had arrived late, El Periódico Oficial del Imperio, 8 Oct. 1864.
42. Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nacionalismo, pp. 12-15.
43. Seymour Lipset, 'Social Conflict, Legitimacy, and Democracy', in William Connolly (ed.), Legitimacy and the State (Oxford, 1984), p. 91.
44. Reglamento para el Servicio y Ceremonial de la Corte (Mexico, 1865), p. 183. In Austria, the emperor's role in public celebrations was limited mostly to 'family' events (birthdays, marriages, etc.), court balls, gala dinners, and church events such as the washing of feet on Maundy Thursday, Jean-Paul Bled, Franz Joseph (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 217-20.
45. Reglamento para el Servicio y Ceremonial de la Corte (Mexico, 1865), p. 183. In Austria, the emperor's role in public celebrations was limited mostly to 'family' events (birthdays, marriages, etc.), court balls, gala dinners, and church events such as the washing of feet on Maundy Thursday, Jean-Paul Bled, Franz Joseph (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 217-20.
46. Almonte to Joaquín Velázquez de León, Minister of State, Mexico, 29 June 1864, Archive General de la Natión (hereafter AGN), Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediente 1; Ángel Iglesias to Minister of State, Irapuato, 3 Sept. 1864, AGN, Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediene 1.
47. Almonte to Joaquín Velázquez de León, Minister of State, Mexico, 29 June 1864, Archive General de la Natión (hereafter AGN), Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediente 1; Ángel Iglesias to Minister of State, Irapuato, 3 Sept. 1864, AGN, Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediene 1.
48. Interim Secretary of the Cabinet to Minister of State, Irapuato, 2 Sept. 1864, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 65.
49. Angel Iglesias to Minister of State, Irapuato, 3 Sept. 1864, AGN, Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediente 1.
50. Ibid.
51. Reseña de las Festividades Nationales de los Dias 15 y 16 de septiembre de 1864 en la capital del imperio (Mexico, 1864), pp. 1-15.
52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.
53. Pedro Negrete, Secretario del Gran Maestro de Ceremonies 'Decretada por S.M. El Emperador la solemnidad del gloriose aniversario de la proclamatión de nuestra Independencia', Mexico, 10 Sept. 1864, AGN, Gobernación, legajo 1515, expediente 1; Reseña de las Festividades, pp. 15-21.
54. Telegram, Interim cabinet secretary Ángel Iglesias, quoted in La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 524-5. Hidalgo's exact words or even whether he spoke them from the window of his house have been subject of much speculation, see Hugh Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt (Gainesville, Florida, 1966), pp. 121-3.
55. Telegram, Interim cabinet secretary Ángel Iglesias, quoted in La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 524-5. Hidalgo's exact words or even whether he spoke them from the window of his house have been subject of much speculation, see Hugh Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt (Gainesville, Florida, 1966), pp. 121-3.
56. Telegram, Interim cabinet secretary Ángel Iglesias, quoted in La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 524-5. Hidalgo's exact words or even whether he spoke them from the window of his house have been subject of much speculation, see Hugh Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt (Gainesville, Florida, 1966), pp. 121-3.
57. Haslip, The Crovn of Mexico, p. 273. This opinion differed from the Marquis de Montholon, head of the French legation in Mexico, who felt the crowd was 'much more curious than enthusiastic'; Montholon to Drouyn de Lhuys, Mexico, 27 Sept. 1865 in Lilia Díaz, (ed.), Versión fraacesa de México: Informes diplomáticos, 1864-1867, vol. 4 (Mexico, 1967), pp. 30-1.
58. Haslip, The Crovn of Mexico, p. 273. This opinion differed from the Marquis de Montholon, head of the French legation in Mexico, who felt the crowd was 'much more curious than enthusiastic'; Montholon to Drouyn de Lhuys, Mexico, 27 Sept. 1865 in Lilia Díaz, (ed.), Versión fraacesa de México: Informes diplomáticos, 1864-1867, vol. 4 (Mexico, 1967), pp. 30-1.
59. La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864.
60. Javier Ocampo, La idea de indepeudencia, pp. 225-8. Maximilian had great interest in Mexico's pre-Columbian past. The imperial coat of arms as well as the flag incorporated the traditional image of the Aztec eagle of Anáhuac perched on a cactus, see Robert H. Duncan, 'Political Legitimation and Maximilian's Second Empire in Mexico, 1864-1867', Mexican Studies, vol. 12, no. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 27-66.
61. Javier Ocampo, La idea de indepeudencia, pp. 225-8. Maximilian had great interest in Mexico's pre-Columbian past. The imperial coat of arms as well as the flag incorporated the traditional image of the Aztec eagle of Anáhuac perched on a cactus, see Robert H. Duncan, 'Political Legitimation and Maximilian's Second Empire in Mexico, 1864-1867', Mexican Studies, vol. 12, no. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 27-66.
62. Eric Hobsbawn, Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 73.
63. Whether Maximilian actually composed the speech is not known, but it can be assumed that he did it without the assistance of conservatives within his government.
64. Plasencia de la Parra, Independencia y nacionalismo, pp. 24, 84-5, 103.
65. Justo Sierra, The Political Evolution of the Mexican People, trans. By Charles Ramsdell (Austin, 1969), p. 326.
66. 'Introduction', in Beezley, Martin, and French (eds.), Rituals of Rule, p. xv.
67. Anderson, Imagined Communities, pp. 6, 133-4, 145.
68. Maximilian to Almonte, Guanajuato, 18 Sept. 1864, Condumex (Mexico City), XXIII, no. 30; La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, PP. 536-7.
69. Maximilian to Almonte, Guanajuato, 18 Sept. 1864, Condumex (Mexico City), XXIII, no. 30; La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, PP. 536-7.
70. Maximilian to Almonte, Guanajuato, 18 Sept. 1864, Condumex (Mexico City), XXIII, no. 30; La Sociedad, 20 Sept. 1864; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, PP. 536-7.
71. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 536, 538;
72. Subprefect of Dolores Hidalgo, J. de D. Peza to Secretary of State, Dolores Hidalgo, 16 Sept. 1864, in Boletín de las Leyes del Imperio Mexicano ó sea Cadigo de la Restauratión, Abril a Diciembre, 1864 (Mexico, 1864), pp. 119-20.
73. On 3 June 1865, Maximilian budgeted funds to repair Hidalgo's house, Manual Orozco y Berra to Subsecretary of Hacienda, Mexico, 3 Aug. 1865, AGN, Gebernación, legajo 1145, expediente 1.
74. Telegram, Maximilian to Carlota, Guanajuato, 17 Sept. 1864, in Luis Weckmann, Carlota de Bélgica, correspondencia y escritos sobre México en los archivos enropeos (1861-1868) (Mexico, 1989), p. 311.
75. Paula Kollonitz, The Court of Mexico (London, 1868), p. 128.
76. Antonio Riba y Echeverría to Romero de Terreros, Mexico, 28 Sept. 1864, in Manual Romero de Terreros, Maximiliano y el Imperio agún correspondencias contemporaneas que publica por primera vez (Mexico, 1926), pp. 36-7.
77. José Luis Blasio, Maximiliano intimo, el emperador Maximiliano y su corte, (Mexico, 1960), p. 155.
78. For instance, Carlota was the daughter of King Leopold II of Belgium (himself a German), granddaughter of France's Louis Philippe, and first cousin to Britain's Queen Victoria.
79. Fernando Serrano Migallón, El grito de independence: Historia de una pasión national (Mexico, 1981), p. 109; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, p. 540;
80. Fernando Serrano Migallón, El grito de independence: Historia de una pasión national (Mexico, 1981), p. 109; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, p. 540;
81. Manuel Rivera Cambas, Historia de la Interventión y del Imperio de Maximiliano, vol. II-B (Mexico, 1961), pp. 748-9.
82. Francisco de Paula de Arrangoiz, Méjico desde 1808 basta 1867, vol. 3 (Madrid, 1872), pp. 228-9. Arrangoiz, Apuntes para la historia del segundo imperio Mexicano (Madrid, 1869), p. 201. Eventually, Arrangoiz would resign his imperial posts over these liberal actions of the emperor through an 'open letter' to a Madrid daily newspaper.
83. Francisco de Paula de Arrangoiz, Méjico desde 1808 basta 1867, vol. 3 (Madrid, 1872), pp. 228-9. Arrangoiz, Apuntes para la historia del segundo imperio Mexicano (Madrid, 1869), p. 201. Eventually, Arrangoiz would resign his imperial posts over these liberal actions of the emperor through an 'open letter' to a Madrid daily newspaper.
84. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 17, pp. 345, 525, 552-4.
85. Maurice Agulhon, 'Politics, Images, and Symbols in Post-Revolutionary France', in Sean Wilentz (ed.), Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics Siace the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1985), p. 179.
86. A cult of founding fathers, however, did not arise in post-Revolutionary France because of its devisive nature, Eric Hobsbawn, 'Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914', in Hobsbawn and Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition, p. 272.
87. As David Brading states, historian and politician Carlos María de Bustamante in the 18zos installed 'the insurgency led by Hidalgo and Morelos as the historical foundation of the Mexican Republic', and thus provided 'the new republic with a portrait gallery of its founding fathers', The First America (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 636, 645.
88. Alamán, Historia de Méjieo, vol. 5, p. 484. In 1850, the commemoration for independence victims was moved from 17 September (the day after Hidalgo's grito) to z8 September (the day following Iturbide's entrance to Mexico City), El Siglo XIX, 15 Sept. 1850. The practice of exhuming bodies was not unique, as David Kertzer reminds, 'heads of state are notorious grave robbers', Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988), p. 44.
89. Alamán, Historia de Méjieo, vol. 5, p. 484. In 1850, the commemoration for independence victims was moved from 17 September (the day after Hidalgo's grito) to z8 September (the day following Iturbide's entrance to Mexico City), El Siglo XIX, 15 Sept. 1850. The practice of exhuming bodies was not unique, as David Kertzer reminds, 'heads of state are notorious grave robbers', Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988), p. 44.
90. Alamán, Historia de Méjieo, vol. 5, p. 484. In 1850, the commemoration for independence victims was moved from 17 September (the day after Hidalgo's grito) to z8 September (the day following Iturbide's entrance to Mexico City), El Siglo XIX, 15 Sept. 1850. The practice of exhuming bodies was not unique, as David Kertzer reminds, 'heads of state are notorious grave robbers', Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988), p. 44.
91. Serrano Migallón, El grito de independencia, p. 62. Enrique Florescano terms this combination of religious fervour and patriotism as 'religious nationalism', Memory, Myth, and Time, p. 217.
92. Serrano Migallón, El grito de independencia, p. 62. Enrique Florescano terms this combination of religious fervour and patriotism as 'religious nationalism', Memory, Myth, and Time, p. 217.
93. By the early 1850s, Lucas Alamán believed only two monuments existed commemorating the execution of insurgent Miguel Bravo in Puebla and Mariano Matamoros in Morelia, Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, p. 484, note 8.
94. The 1940s similarly witnessed the unlikely combination of Mexican Revolutionary heroes - Madero, Carranza, Zapata, and Villa, David Lorey, 'Public Festivities and Political Consolidation', paper presented at the IX Conference of Mexican, United States, and Canadian Historians, Mexico City, Oct. 27-29, 1994.
95. Rodríguez Arrangoity had also worked on the restoration of Chapultepec castle and would later design the monument to Columbus in the early 1870s, Justino Fernández, El arte del siglo XIX en México (Mexico, 1983), pp. 171-2. Luis Robles Pezuela, Memoria presentada a S.M. el Emperador par el Ministro de Fomento Luis Robles Pezuela de los trabajos ejecutados en su ramo el aña de 1865, (Mexico, 1866), pp. 163, 645-6; Dirección Civil, 'Extractos de la piezas que se remiten al Emperador...', 14 Aug. 1866, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 8.
96. Rodríguez Arrangoity had also worked on the restoration of Chapultepec castle and would later design the monument to Columbus in the early 1870s, Justino Fernández, El arte del siglo XIX en México (Mexico, 1983), pp. 171-2. Luis Robles Pezuela, Memoria presentada a S.M. el Emperador par el Ministro de Fomento Luis Robles Pezuela de los trabajos ejecutados en su ramo el aña de 1865, (Mexico, 1866), pp. 163, 645-6; Dirección Civil, 'Extractos de la piezas que se remiten al Emperador...', 14 Aug. 1866, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 8.
97. Rodríguez Arrangoity had also worked on the restoration of Chapultepec castle and would later design the monument to Columbus in the early 1870s, Justino Fernández, El arte del siglo XIX en México (Mexico, 1983), pp. 171-2. Luis Robles Pezuela, Memoria presentada a S.M. el Emperador par el Ministro de Fomento Luis Robles Pezuela de los trabajos ejecutados en su ramo el aña de 1865, (Mexico, 1866), pp. 163, 645-6; Dirección Civil, 'Extractos de la piezas que se remiten al Emperador...', 14 Aug. 1866, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 8.
98. Robles Pezuela, Memoria, pp. 646-7.
99. 'Noticia de las ordenes de pago expedida par la Secretaría de Hacienda', 5 July 1864, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 58; Imperial decree, Palace of Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, in Boietín de las Leyes del Imperio Mexicano, Junio a Diciembre, 1865 (Mexico, 1866), p. 95; Luis Robles Pezuela to Maximilian, Mexico, 20 Jan. 1866, AGN, Segudo Imperio, caja 18.
100. 'Noticia de las ordenes de pago expedida par la Secretaría de Hacienda', 5 July 1864, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 58; Imperial decree, Palace of Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, in Boietín de las Leyes del Imperio Mexicano, Junio a Diciembre, 1865 (Mexico, 1866), p. 95; Luis Robles Pezuela to Maximilian, Mexico, 20 Jan. 1866, AGN, Segudo Imperio, caja 18.
101. 'Noticia de las ordenes de pago expedida par la Secretaría de Hacienda', 5 July 1864, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 58; Imperial decree, Palace of Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, in Boietín de las Leyes del Imperio Mexicano, Junio a Diciembre, 1865 (Mexico, 1866), p. 95; Luis Robles Pezuela to Maximilian, Mexico, 20 Jan. 1866, AGN, Segudo Imperio, caja 18.
102. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, pp. 171-2. Alphonse Dano, head of the French legation, wrote that the absence of the Minister of Foreign Relations was noticed above all; Alphonse Dano to Drouyn de Lhuys, Mexico, 2 Oct. 1865, in Díaz, (ed.) Versión francesa de Mexico, vol. 4, pp. 211-12, 'Ceremonial que se observara para la inauguratión de la estatua de Monies', Library of Congress (hereafter LC), Manuscript division, Henry A. Monday Collection, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 114-15.
103. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, pp. 171-2. Alphonse Dano, head of the French legation, wrote that the absence of the Minister of Foreign Relations was noticed above all; Alphonse Dano to Drouyn de Lhuys, Mexico, 2 Oct. 1865, in Díaz, (ed.) Versión francesa de Mexico, vol. 4, pp. 211-12, 'Ceremonial que se observara para la inauguratión de la estatua de Monies', Library of Congress (hereafter LC), Manuscript division, Henry A. Monday Collection, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 114-15.
104. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, pp. 171-2. Alphonse Dano, head of the French legation, wrote that the absence of the Minister of Foreign Relations was noticed above all; Alphonse Dano to Drouyn de Lhuys, Mexico, 2 Oct. 1865, in Díaz, (ed.) Versión francesa de Mexico, vol. 4, pp. 211-12, 'Ceremonial que se observara para la inauguratión de la estatua de Monies', Library of Congress (hereafter LC), Manuscript division, Henry A. Monday Collection, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 114-15.
105. La Orquesta, 4 Oct. 1865.
106. Minister of Fomento Luis Robles Pezuela requested that the civil cabinet return the second volume of a historical dictionary that Maximilian had borrowed to read up on Morelos, Luis Robles Pezuela to Chief of Civil Cabinet, Mexico, 22 Nov. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 44.
107. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, pp. 172-3.
108. 'Ceremonial... la estatua de Morelos', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 114-15. The empire also planned a stone monument marking the place of Morelos' execution in 1815 and a marble tablet for the house where he was born, Robles Pezuela, Memoria, 163.
109. 'Ceremonial... la estatua de Morelos', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 114-15. The empire also planned a stone monument marking the place of Morelos' execution in 1815 and a marble tablet for the house where he was born, Robles Pezuela, Memoria, 163.
110. Hobsbawn, Nations and Nationalism, p. 86.
111. El Diario del Imperio, 17 Nov. 1865; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 164.
112. El Diario del Imperio, 17 Nov. 1865; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 164.
113. Arrangoiz, Méjico desde 1808 basta 1867, vol. 4, pp. 16-17. The $12,236 pesos that the government had budgeted for a funeral monument to conservative general Manual Robles Pezuela, killed by liberal forces in 1862, did not seem to placate conservative sensibilities, Maximilian to Minister of Fomento, Mexico, 19 Nov. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69.
114. Arrangoiz, Méjico desde 1808 basta 1867, vol. 4, pp. 16-17. The $12,236 pesos that the government had budgeted for a funeral monument to conservative general Manual Robles Pezuela, killed by liberal forces in 1862, did not seem to placate conservative sensibilities, Maximilian to Minister of Fomento, Mexico, 19 Nov. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69.
115. Ramírez's portrait, however, did not picture Hidalgo in the typical garb of a parish priest, Fausto Ramírez, La plástica del siglo de la independencia (Mexico, 1985), p. 69.
116. 'Observaciones que servirán a las personas de la Corte de complemento para el ceremonial del dia 16 de septiembre de 1865' and 'Disposiciones generales para la fiesta nacional del 16 de septiembre de 1865', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 107-13; Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuerpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Béigica, pp. 125-6.
117. 'Observaciones que servirán a las personas de la Corte de complemento para el ceremonial del dia 16 de septiembre de 1865' and 'Disposiciones generales para la fiesta nacional del 16 de septiembre de 1865', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 107-13; Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuerpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Béigica, pp. 125-6.
118. Quoted in The Mexican Times, 23 Sept. 1865.
119. Maximilian to Karl Ludwig, n.p., 11 Sept. 1865, in Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte, p. 532. Maximilian did have some military experience as a rear admiral in the Austrian navy.
120. El Diario del Imperio, 16 Sept. 1865.
121. 'Disposiciones genralcs', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 107-11; Manuel Romero de Terreros, ed., La corte de Maximiliano, cartas de Don Ignacio Algara, que publica por primera vez (Mexico, 1938), pp. 65-6.
122. 'Disposiciones genralcs', Monday Collection, LC, Mss. 19, 125, reel 38, f. 107-11; Manuel Romero de Terreros, ed., La corte de Maximiliano, cartas de Don Ignacio Algara, que publica por primera vez (Mexico, 1938), pp. 65-6.
123. El Diario del Imperio, 16 Sept. 1865.
124. Mariano Riva Palacio to Romero de Terreros, Mexico, 28 Sept. 1865 in Romero de Terreros, Maximiliano y el Imperio, pp. 86-7.
125. In New York, both sides sponsored opposing independence-day banquets with equally poor results. Whereas the republican 'Club Mexicano' was not able to collect sufficient funds to hold their banquet, the imperial dinner literally attracted only a handful of guests; Matías Romero to the Minister of Foreign Relations, New York, 20 Sept. 1865 in Correspondencia de la Legatión Mexicana en Washington durante la intervención extranjera, 186o-1868, vol. 5 (Mexico, 1871), pp. 641-2.
126. Zamacois, Heritora de Méjica, vol. 18, p. 141.
127. Ibid., pp. 142, 145.
128. Maximilian to Ministers of Cultos, Hacienda, and Fomento, Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69. Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuperpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Bélgien, p. 125; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 163. In 1838, president Bustamante moved Iturbide's ashes to the central cathedral placing them in a different chapel from those of the other insurgents; thus, as Alamán noted, they were 'separated in death as they had been in life', Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, pp. 503-4.
129. Maximilian to Ministers of Cultos, Hacienda, and Fomento, Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69. Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuperpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Bélgien, p. 125; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 163. In 1838, president Bustamante moved Iturbide's ashes to the central cathedral placing them in a different chapel from those of the other insurgents; thus, as Alamán noted, they were 'separated in death as they had been in life', Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, pp. 503-4.
130. Maximilian to Ministers of Cultos, Hacienda, and Fomento, Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69. Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuperpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Bélgien, p. 125; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 163. In 1838, president Bustamante moved Iturbide's ashes to the central cathedral placing them in a different chapel from those of the other insurgents; thus, as Alamán noted, they were 'separated in death as they had been in life', Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, pp. 503-4.
131. Maximilian to Ministers of Cultos, Hacienda, and Fomento, Mexico, 16 Sept. 1865, AGN, Segundo Imperio, caja 69. Circular, José Fernando Ramírez al cuperpo diplomático del Imperio, n.p., Sept. 1865, in Weckmann, Carlota de Bélgien, p. 125; Robles Pezuela, Memoria, p. 163. In 1838, president Bustamante moved Iturbide's ashes to the central cathedral placing them in a different chapel from those of the other insurgents; thus, as Alamán noted, they were 'separated in death as they had been in life', Historia de Méjico, vol. 5, pp. 503-4.
132. Rumours persist that Maximilian fathered a child with Concepción Sedano, the wife of one of his gardeners. The boy was reportedly born in August 1866, months after the adoption of Iturbide's grandson. Even if true - and there is some doubt - this child could hardly have been accepted as heir to the throne. See Haslip, The Crown of Mexico, pp. 357-8
133. The Mexican Times, 30 Dec. 1865. Carlota explained that Iturbide's grandsons, and not his sons, were picked since the latter had acquired the habit of drinking and gambling, Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte, pp. 528-9, though it is more likely that the sons were not adopted since they were all older than the emperor.
134. The Mexican Times, 30 Dec. 1865. Carlota explained that Iturbide's grandsons, and not his sons, were picked since the latter had acquired the habit of drinking and gambling, Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte, pp. 528-9, though it is more likely that the sons were not adopted since they were all older than the emperor.
135. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 3 vols. (New York, 1909), iii, pp. 270-8, 508-10; Alice G. de Iturbide to Marshal Bazaine, Puebla, 21 Sept. 1865, Condumex, fondo CLXXIV; John Bigelow, 'The Heir-Presumptive to the Imperial Crown of Mexico', Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. 66 (1885), pp. 742-3, 758.
136. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 3 vols. (New York, 1909), iii, pp. 270-8, 508-10; Alice G. de Iturbide to Marshal Bazaine, Puebla, 21 Sept. 1865, Condumex, fondo CLXXIV; John Bigelow, 'The Heir-Presumptive to the Imperial Crown of Mexico', Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. 66 (1885), pp. 742-3, 758.
137. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 3 vols. (New York, 1909), iii, pp. 270-8, 508-10; Alice G. de Iturbide to Marshal Bazaine, Puebla, 21 Sept. 1865, Condumex, fondo CLXXIV; John Bigelow, 'The Heir-Presumptive to the Imperial Crown of Mexico', Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. 66 (1885), pp. 742-3, 758.
138. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, p. 560; Blasio, Maximiliano intíma, pp. 242-4.
139. Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, vol. 18, p. 560; Blasio, Maximiliano intíma, pp. 242-4.
140. El Diario del Imperio, 16 Sept. 1866.
141. New York Times, 18 Nov. 1866.