Synthesis and characterization of palladium and nickel complexes with positively charged triphosphine ligands and their use as electrochemical CO2-reduction catalysts

Organometallics

Volumn 16, Issue 26, 1997, Pages 5779-5791

  Miedaner, Alex ^a   Noll, Bruce C ^b   DuBois, Daniel L ^a  

^a NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000834978     PISSN: 02767333     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/om970519c     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. 2, see: Electrochemical and Electrocatalytic Reactions of Carbon Dioxide; Sullivan, B. P.; Krist, K.; Guard, H. E., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1993. Collin, J. P.; Sauvage, J. P. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1989, 93, 245.
2. 2, see: Electrochemical and Electrocatalytic Reactions of Carbon Dioxide; Sullivan, B. P.; Krist, K.; Guard, H. E., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1993. Collin, J. P.; Sauvage, J. P. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1989, 93, 245.
3. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
4. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
5. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
6. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
7. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
8. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
9. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
10. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
11. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
12. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
13. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
14. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
15. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
16. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of nitrogen macrocycles, see: Meshitsuka, S.; Ichikawa, M.; Tamaru, K. J. Chem. Soc., Chem Commun. 1974, 158. Fisher, B.; Eisenberg, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 7363. Szalda, D. J.; Fujita, E.; Sanzenbacher, R.; Paulus, H.; Elias, H. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 5855. Sakaki, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2055. Kelly, C. A.; Mulazzani, Q. G.; Venturi, M.; Blinn, E. L.; Rodgers, M. A. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 4911. Smith, C. I.; Crayston, J. A.; Hay, R. W. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1993, 3267. Pearce, D. J.; Pletcher, D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1986, 197, 317. Schmidt, M. H.; Miskelly, G. M.; Lewis, N. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 3420. Isse, A. A.; Gennaro, A.; Vianello, E. J. Mol. Catal. 1991, 70, 197. Fujihira, M.; Hirata, Y.; Suga, K. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1990, 292, 199. Balazs, G. B.; Anson, F. C. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 325. Grant, J. L.; Goswami, K.; Spreer, L. O.; Otvos, J. W.; Calvin, M. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. 1987, 2105. Satake, Y.; Ihara, Y.; Senda, H.; Suzuki, M.; Uehara, A. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3248. Hammouche, M.; Lexa, D.; Momenteau, M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8455.
17. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
18. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
19. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
20. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
21. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
22. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
23. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
24. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
25. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
26. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes of bipyridine ligands, see: Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J.-M.; Ziessel, R. Helv. Chim. Acta 1986, 69, 1990. Johnson, F. P. A.; George, M. W.; Hartl, F.; Turner, J. J. Organometallics 1996, 15, 3374. Bruce, M. R. M.; Megehee, E.; Sullivan, B. P.; Thorp, H. H.; O'Toole, T. R.; Downard, A.; Pugh, J. R.; Meyer, T. J. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 4864. Haukka, M.; Kiviaho, J.; Ahlgrén, M.; Pakkanen, T. A. Organometallics 1995, 825. Chardon-Noblat, S.; Collomb-Dunand-Sauthier, M.-N.; Deronzier, A.; Ziessel, R.; Zsoldos, D. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4410. Christensen, P.; Hamnett, A.; Muir, V. G.; Timney, J. A.; Higgins, S. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1994, 90, 459. Garnier, L.; Rollin, Y.; Périchon, J. New J. Chem. 1989, 13, 53. Toyohara, K.; Tsuge, K.; Tanaka, K. Organometallics 1995, 14, 5099. Gibson, D. H.; Ding, Y.; Sleadd, B. A.; Franco, J. O.; Richardson, J. F.; Mashuta, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11984. Sende, J. A. R.; Arana, C. R.; Hernández, L.; Potts, K. T.; Keshevarz-K, M.; Abruña, H. D. Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 3339.
27. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes containing phosphorus ligands, see refs 7-12 and Slater, S.; Wagenknecht, J. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 5367. Szymaszek, A.; Pruchnik, F. P. J. Organomet. Chem. 1989, 376, 133. Haines, R. J.; Wittrig, R. E.; Kubiak, C. P. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4723.
28. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes containing phosphorus ligands, see refs 7-12 and Slater, S.; Wagenknecht, J. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 5367. Szymaszek, A.; Pruchnik, F. P. J. Organomet. Chem. 1989, 376, 133. Haines, R. J.; Wittrig, R. E.; Kubiak, C. P. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4723.
29. For electrocatalysts based on transition metal complexes containing phosphorus ligands, see refs 7-12 and Slater, S.; Wagenknecht, J. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 5367. Szymaszek, A.; Pruchnik, F. P. J. Organomet. Chem. 1989, 376, 133. Haines, R. J.; Wittrig, R. E.; Kubiak, C. P. Inorg. Chem. 1994, 33, 4723.
30. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
31. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
32. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
33. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
34. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
35. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
36. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
37. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
38. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
39. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
40. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
41. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
42. For electrocatalysts based on metal electrodes, see: Shiratsuchi, R.; Nogami, G. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 582 and references therein. Vassiliev, Y. B.; Bagotzky, V. S.; Osetrova, N. V.; Khazova, O. A.; Mayorova, N. A. J. Electranal. Chem. 1985, 189, 271. Watanabe, M.; Shibata, M.; Kato, A.; Azuma, M.; Sakata, T. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1991, 138, 3382. Stalder, C. J.; Chao, S.; Wrighton, M. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1984, 106, 3673. Eggins, B. R.; McNeill, J. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1983, 148, 17. Frese, K. W., Jr.; Leach, S. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1985, 189, 259. Hori, Y.; Kikuchi, K.; Suzuki, S. Chem. Lett. 1985, 1695. Hori, Y.; Murata, A.; Tsukamoto, T.; Wakebe, H.; Koga, O.; Yamazaki, H. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 2495. Jermann, B.; Augustynski, J. Electrochim. Acta 1994, 39, 1891. Cook, R. L.; MacDuff, R. C.; Sammells, A. F. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, 137, 187. DeWulf, D. W.; Jin, T.; Bard, A. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 1686. Naitoh, A.; Ohta, K.; Mizuno, T.; Yoshida, H.; Sakai, M.; Noda, H. Electrochim. Acta 1993, 38, 2177. Kyriacou, G.; Anagnostopoulos, A. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1992, 322, 233.
43. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
44. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
45. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
46. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
47. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
48. 2 chemistry, see: Darensbourg, D. J.; Holtcamp, M. W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 155. Leitner, W. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 153, 257. Costamagna, J.; Ferraudi, G.; Canales, J.; Vargas, J. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1996, 148, 221. Behr, A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes; VCH: New York, 1988. Braunstein, P.; Matt, D.; Nobel, D. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 747. Some papers focusing on chemical production are as follows: Gambino, S.; Filardo, G.; Silvestri, G. J. Appl. Electrochem. 1982, 12, 549. Tsuda, T.; Maruta, K.; Kitaike, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 1498. Darensbourg, D. J.; Ovalles, C. CHEMTECH 1985, 636. Dérien, S.; Duñach, E.; Périchon, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 8447. Amatore, C.; Jutand, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 2819.
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