Capital punishment, the moratorium movement, and empirical questions: Looking beyond innocence, race, and bad lawyering in death penalty cases

Psychology, Public Policy, and Law

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 577-617

  Lanier, Charles S ^a,b   Acker, James R ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b Cap Punishment Research Initiative   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 9944234888     PISSN: 10768971     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/1076-8971.10.4.577     Document Type: Review

References (297)

1. Aarons, D. (1998). Getting out of this mess: Steps toward addressing and avoiding inordinate delay in capital cases. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 89, 1-80.
2. Acker, J. R. (1990). Dual and unusual: Competing views of death penalty adjudication. Criminal Law Bulletin, 25, 123-154.
3. Acker, J. R. (1993). A different agenda: The Supreme Court, empirical research evidence, and capital punishment decisions, 1986-1989. Law and Society Review, 27, 65-88.
4. Acker, J. R. (1996). The death penalty: A 25-year retrospective and a perspective on the future. Criminal Justice Review, 21, 139-160.
5. Acker, J. R., Brody, D. C., Harmon, T. R., & Richeson, J. S. (1999). The Empire State strikes back: Examining death- and life-qualification of jurors and sentencing alternatives under New York's capital-punishment law. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 10, 49-83.
6. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1993a). Aggravating circumstances and capital punishment law: Rhetoric or real reforms? Criminal Law Bulletin, 29, 467-501.
7. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1993b). Capital murder from benefit of clergy to bifurcated trials: Narrowing the class of offenses punishable by death. Criminal Law Bulletin, 29, 291-316.
8. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1993c). The dimensions of capital murder. Criminal Law Bulletin, 29, 379-417.
9. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1993d). Doing the devil's work: Toward model death penalty legislation. Criminal Law Bulletin, 29, 219-240.
10. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1994a). In fairness and mercy: Statutory mitigating factors in capital punishment laws. Criminal Law Bulletin, 30, 299-345.
11. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1994b). "Parsing this lexicon of death": Aggravating factors in capital sentencing statutes. Criminal Law Bulletin, 30, 107-152.
12. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1995a). Matters of life or death: The sentencing provisions in capital punishment statutes. Criminal Law Bulletin, 31, 19-60.
13. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1995b). Statutory measures for more effective appellate review of capital cases. Criminal Law Bulletin, 31, 211-258.
14. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1996). Law, discretion, and the capital jury: Death penalty statutes and proposals for reform. Criminal Law Bulletin, 32, 134-180.
15. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1997). Unfit to live, unfit to die: Incompetency for execution under modern death penalty legislation. Criminal Law Bulletin, 33, 107-150.
16. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (1999). Ready for the defense? Legislative provisions governing the appointment of counsel in capital cases. Criminal Law Bulletin, 35, 429-477.
17. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (2000). May God - or the governor - have mercy: Executive clemency and executions in modern death-penalty systems. Criminal Law Bulletin. 36, 200-237.
18. Acker, J. R., & Lanier, C. S. (2003). Beyond human ability? The rise and fall of death penalty legislation. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 85-125). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
19. Adams v. Texas, 448 U.S. 38 (1980).
20. Advancing Justice Through DNA Technology Act of 2003, H.R. 3214, 108th Cong. (2003-2004).
21. Advancing Justice Through DNA Technology Act of 2003. S. 1700, 108th Cong. (2003-2004).
22. Albert, C. J. (1999). Challenging deterrence: New insights on capital punishment derived from panel data. University of Pittsburgh Law Review, 60, 321-367.
23. Allen, M., Mabry, E., & McKelton, D. -M. (1998). Impact of juror attitudes about the death penalty on juror evaluations of guilt and punishment: A meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 22, 715-731.
24. American Bar Association. (1997). Report with Recommendations No. 107, from ABA 1997 Midyear Meeting: As approved by the ABA House of Delegates february 3, 1997. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www. abanet. org/irr/rec107.html
25. American Bar Association. (2001a, Summer). The death penalty: Real lives in the balance [Special issue, electronic version), Human Rights, 28. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www. abanet. org/irr/hr/summer01/summer01.html
26. American Bar Association. (2001b, June). Death without justice: A guide for examining the administration of the death penalty in the United States. Retrieved June 23, 2002, from http://www.abanet.org/irr/finaljune28.pdf
27. American Bar Association. (2001c, August). Toward greater awareness: The American Bar Association call for a moratorium on executions gains ground. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www.abanet.org/media/deathpenalty.html
28. Amnesty International. (1994). Conditions of death row prisoners in H-Unit, Oklahoma State Penitentiary. London: Author.
29. Amsterdam, A. G. (1999). Selling a quick fix for boot hill: The myth of justice delayed in death cases. In A. Sarat (Ed.), The killing state: Capital punishment in law, politics, and culture (pp. 148-183). New York: Oxford University Press.
30. Armstrong, K., & Possley, M. (1999, January 10-14). Trial and error: How prosecutors sacrifice justice to win. Chicago Tribune [5-part series].
31. Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002).
32. Bailey, W. C. (1978a). An analysis of the deterrent effect of the death penalty in North Carolina. North Corolina Central Law Journal, 10, 29-51.
33. Bailey, W. C. (1978b). Deterrence and the death penalty for murder in Utah: A time series analysis. Journal of Contemporary Law, 5, 1-20.
34. Bailey, W. C. (1979a). Deterrence and the death penalty for murder in Oregon. Willamette Law Review, 6, 67-85.
35. Bailey, W. C. (1979b). The deterrent effect of the death penalty for murder in California. Southern California Law Review, 52, 743-764.
36. Bailey, W. C. (1979c). The deterrent effect of the death penalty for murder in Ohio. Cleveland State Law Review, 28, 51-68.
37. Bailey, W. C. (1984). Disaggregation in deterrence and death penalty research: The case of murder in Chicago. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74, 827-855.
38. Bailey, W. C. (1998). Deterrence, brutalization, and the death penalty: Another examination of Oklahoma's return to capital punishment. Criminology, 36, 711-733.
39. Baldus, D. C., Pulaski, C. A., Jr., & Woodworth, O. (1983). Comparative review of death sentences: An empirical study of the Georgia experience. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74, 661-753.
40. Baldus, D. C., Pulaski, C. A., Jr., Woodworth, G., & Kyle, F. D. (1980). Identifying comparatively excessive sentences of death: A quantitative approach. Stanford Law Review, 33, 1-73.
41. Baldus, D. C., & Woodworth, G. (2003). Race discrimination and the death penalty: An empirical and legal overview. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 501-551). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
42. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., & Pulaski, C. A., Jr. (1990). Equal justice and the death penalty: A legal and empirical analysis. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
43. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., & Pulaski, C. A., Jr. (1994). Reflections on the "inevitability" of racial discrimination in capital sentencing and the "impossibility" of its prevention, detection and correction. Washington & Lee Law Review, 51, 359-430.
44. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., Young, G. L., & Christ. A. M. (2001). Executive summary: The disposition of Nebraska capital and non-capital homicide cases (1973-1999): A legal and empirical analysis. Retrieved June 17, 2002. from http://www.nol. org/ home/crimecom/homicide/homicide.htm
45. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., Zuckerman, D., Weiner, N. A., & Broffitt, B. (1998). Racial discrimination and the death penalty in the post-Furman era: An empirical and legal overview, with recent findings from Philadelphia. Cornell Law Review, 83, 1638-1770.
46. Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., Zuckerman, D., Weiner, N. A., & Broffitt, B. (2001). The use of peremptory challenges in capital murder trials: A legal and empirical analysis. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 3, 3-170.
47. Banks v. Dretke, 124 S. Ct. 1256 (2004).
48. Barefoot v. Estelle, 463 U.S. 880 (1983).
49. Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 (1986).
50. Beck v. Alabama, 447 U.S. 625 (1980).
51. Bedau, H. A., & Radelet, M. L. (1987). Miscarriages of justice in potentially capital cases. Stanford Law Review, 40, 21-179.
52. Bentele, U., & Bowers, W. J. (2001. Summer). How jurors decide on death: Guilt is overwhelming; aggravation requires death; and mitigation is no excuse. Brooklyn Law Review, 66, 1011-1080.
53. Bienen, L. B. (1993). Helping jurors out: Post-verdict debriefing for jurors in emotionally disturbing trials. Indiana Law Journal, 68, 1333-1355.
54. Bienen, L. B. (1996). The proportionality review of capital cases by state high courts after Gregg: Only "the appearance of justice"? Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87, 130-314.
55. Bilionis, L. D., & Rosen, R. A. (1997). Lawyers, arbitrariness, and the Eighth Amendment. Texas Law Review. 75, 1301-1371.
56. Black, C. L., Jr. (1974). Capital punishment: The inevitability of caprice and mistake. New York: Norton.
57. Bluestone, H., & McGahee, C. L. (1962). Reactions to extreme stress: Impending death by execution. American Journal of Psychiatry, 119, 393-396.
58. Blume, J. H., & Eisenberg, T. (1999). Judicial politics, death penalty appeals, and case selection: An empirical study. Southern California Law Review, 72, 465-503.
59. Blume, J. H., Garvey, S. P., & Johnson, S. L. (2001). Future dangerousness in capital cases: Always "at issue." Cornell Law Review, 86, 397-410.
60. Bohm, R. M. (2003). The economic costs of capital punishment: Past, present, and future. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 573-594). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
61. Bonner, R., & Fessenden, F. (2000, September 22). States with no death penalty share lower homicide rates. New York Times. Retrieved June 24, 2002. from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/NYT-Homicide.html
62. Bowers, W. J. (1983). The pervasiveness of arbitrariness and discrimination under post-Furman capital statutes. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74, 1067-1100.
63. Bowers, W. J. (1993). Capital punishment and contemporary values: People's misgivings and the Court's misperceptions. Law and Society Review, 27, 157-175.
64. Bowers, W. J. (1995). The Capital Jury Project: Rationale, design, and a preview of early findings. Indiana Law Journal, 70, 1043-1102.
65. Bowers, W. J., Fleury-Steiner, B. D., & Antonio, M. E. (2003). The capital sentencing decision: Guided discretion, reasoned moral judgment, or legal fiction. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 413-467). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
66. Bowers, W. J., & Pierce, G. (1980). Deterrence or brutalization: What is the effect of executions? Crime and Delinquency, 26, 453-484.
67. Bowers, W. J., Sandys, M., & Steiner, B. D. (1998). Foreclosed impartiality in capital sentencing: Jurors' predispositions, guilt trial experience, and premature decision making. Cornell Law Review, 83, 1476-1556.
68. Bowers, W. J., Steiner, B. D., & Sandys, M. (2001). Death sentencing in black and white: An empirical analysis of the role of jurors' race and jury racial composition. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 3, 171-274.
69. Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963).
70. Bresler, K. (1994). Seeking justice, seeking election, and seeking the death penalty: The ethics of prosecutorial candidates' campaigning on capital convictions. Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics, 7, 941-958.
71. Bright, S. B. (1994). Counsel for the poor: The death sentence not for the worst crime but for the worst lawyer. Yale Law Review, 103, 1835-1883.
72. Bright, S. B. (1997). Political attacks on the judiciary: Can justice be done amid efforts to intimidate and remove judges from office for unpopular decisions? New York University Law Review, 72, 308-336.
73. Bright, S. B. (2003). The politics of capital punishment: The sacrifice of fairness for executions. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 127-146). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
74. Bright, S. B., & Keenan, P. J. (1995). Judges and the polities of death: Deciding between the Bill of Rights and the next election in capital cases. Boston University Law Review, 75, 759-835.
75. Brooks, J., & Erickson, J. H. (1996). The dire wolf collects his due while the boys sit by the fire: Why Michigan cannot afford to buy into the death penalty. Thomas M. Cooley Law Review. 13, 877-904.
76. Burdine v. Johnson, 262 F.3d 336 (5th Cir. 2001) (en bane), cert. denied, 535 U.S. 1120 (2002).
77. Cabana, D. A. (1996). Death at midnight: The confession of an executioner. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
78. California v. Brown, 479 U.S. 538 (1987).
79. Cameron, S. (1994). Review of the econometric evidence on the effects of capital punishment. Journal of Socio-Economics, 23, 197-214.
80. Carrelli, R. (2000, December 17). Death sentence set aside: High Court says race played a part in sentencing (Electronic version]. Associated Press. Retrieved June 24, 2002. from http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/DailyNews/ seotus_deathpenalty000605.html
81. Cauthen, J. N. G., & Latzer, B. (2000). Time on appeal: Empirical evidence on capital case processing in New Jersey. The Judges' Journal, 39, 12-17.
82. Chandler, C. (1998). Voluntary executions. Stanford Law Review. 50, 1897-1927.
83. Cho, S. (1994). Capital confusion: The effect of jury instructions on the decision to impose death. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 85, 532-561.
84. Cochran, J. K., & Chamlin, M. B. (2000). Deterrence and brutalization: The dual effects of executions. Justice Quarterly, 17, 685-706.
85. Cochran, J. K., Chamlin, M. B., & Seth, M. (1994). Deterrence or brutalization? An impact assessment of Oklahoma's return to capital punishment. Criminology, 32, 107-134.
86. Coleman v. Thompson, 501 U.S. 722 (1991).
87. Commission on Capital Punishment. (2002, April 15). Report of the Governor's Commission on Capital Punishment. State of Illinois. Retrieved June 19, 2002, from http://www.idoc.state.il.us/ccp/ccp/reports/commission_report/ index.html
88. The Connecticut Commission on the Death Penalty. (2003). Death Penalty Commission Final Report. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.opm.state.ct. us/pdpd1/CDP/CDP-FinalReport.htm
89. Connolly, M. P. (1997). Better never than late: Prolonged stays on death row violate the Eighth Amendment. New England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement, 23, 101-138.
90. The Constitution Project. (2001). Mandatory justice: Eighteen reforms to the death penalty. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.constitutionproject. org/dpi/Mandatory_Justice_7-05-01.PDF
91. The Constitution Project. (2002). Mission statement of the Death Penalty Initiative. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.constitutionproject.org/ dpi/mission.html
92. Cook, P. J., & Slawson, D. B. (1993). The costs of processing murder cases in North Carolina. Durham, NC: Terry Sanford Institute of Public Policy.
93. Costanzo, M. (1997). Just revenge: Costs and consequences of the death penalty. New York: St. Martin's Press.
94. Costanzo, M., & Costanzo, S. (1992). Jury decision making in the capital penalty phase: Legal assumptions, empirical findings, and a research agenda. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 185-201.
95. Cowan, C. L., Thompson, W. C., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1984). The effects of death qualification on jurors' predisposition to convict and on the quality of deliberation. Law and Human Behavior, 8, 53-79.
96. Coyle, M., Strasser, F., & Lavelle, M. (1990, June 11). Fatal defense: Trial and error in the nation's death belt. National Law Journal, 12, 30-44.
97. Coyne, R., & Entzeroth, L. (1996). Report regarding implementation of the American Bar Association's recommendations and resolutions concerning the death penalty and calling for a moratorium on executions. Georgetown Journal on Fighting Poverty, 4, 3-51.
98. Crosby, C. A., Britner, P. A., Jodl, K. M., & Portwood, S. G. (1995). The juvenile death penalty and the Eighth Amendment: An empirical investigation of societal consensus and proportionality. Law and Human Behavior, 19, 245-261.
99. Death Penalty Information Center. (1994, Fall). Millions misspent: What politicians don't say about the high costs of the death penalty. Retrieved June 12, 2002, from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/dpic.r08.html
100. Death Penalty Information Center. (1996, October 18). Killing for votes: The dangers of politicizing the death penalty process. Retrieved June 12, 2002, from http:// www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/dpicrkfv.html
101. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004a). Age requirements for the death penalty and the execution of juveniles. Retrieved June 10, 2004, from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo.org. article. php?scid = 27&did = 203ageregs
102. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004b). Changes in death penalty laws around the U.S.-2000-2004. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo.org/ article.php?did = 236&scid=40#NB
103. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004c). Executions in the United States. Retrieved June 10, 2004, from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article/ php?did=414&scid =
104. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004d). In Ryan's words: "I must act." Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ article.php?scid= 13&did = 551
105. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004e). Innocence and the death penalty. Retrieved June 10, 2004, from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article. php7did=412&scid = 6
106. Death Penalty Information Center. (2004f). Life without parole. Retrieved June 10, 2004. from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did = 555&scid = 59
107. Delaware General Assembly. (2002). Senate Joint Resolution #3. Retrieved June 17. 2002, from http://www.legis.state.de.us/Legislature.nsf/fsLIS? openframeset&Frame= Main&Src=/LIS/LIS141. NSF/Home!Openform
108. DeMay, J. (1999). A district attorney's decision whether to seek the death penalty: Toward an improved process. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 26, 767-819.
109. Diamond, S. S. (1993). Instructing on death: Psychologists, juries, and judges. American Psychologist, 48, 423-434.
110. Diamond, S. S., & Levi, J. N. (1996). Improving decisions on death by revising and testing jury instructions. Judicature, 79, 224-232.
111. Dillehay, R. C., & Sandys, M. R. (1996). Life under Wainwright v. Witt: Juror dispositions and death qualification. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 147-165.
112. Eisenberg, T. & Wells, M. T. (1993). Deadly confusion: Juror instructions in capital cases. Cornell Law Review, 79, 1-15.
113. Equal Justice USA/Quixote Center. (2004a). National tally of moratorium endorsers. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.quixole. org/ej/
114. Equal Justice USA/Quixote Center. (2004b). State by state. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.quixote.org/ej/
115. Executive Office of the Governor. (2002). Bills signed by Governor Rowland: 2001 legislative session. Retrieved June 28, 2002, from http://www.state.ct. us/governor/ bills/01legal18.htm
116. Ex parte Davis, 947 S.W.2d 216 (Tex. Crim. App. 1996).
117. Ex parte Guzmon, 730 S.W.2d 724 (Tex. Crim. App. 1987).
118. Federal Death Penalty Abolition Act of 2001, S. 191, 107th Cong. (2001).
119. Finch, M. & Ferraro, M. (1986). The empirical challenge to death-qualified juries: On further examination. Nebraska Law Review, 65, 21-74.
120. Fisher, S. Z. (1988). In search of the virtuous prosecutor: A conceptual framework. American Journal of Criminal Law, 15, 197-261.
121. Fitzgerald, R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1984). Due process vs. crime control: Death qualification and jury attitudes. Law and Human Behavior, 8, 31-51.
122. Foley, D. J. (1996). Tennessee Supreme Court: A statistical analysis of an ideological shift after the 1990 election. Tennessee Law Review, 64, 155-187.
123. Free v. Peters, 19 F.3d 389 (7th Cir. 1994), Rovner, J., dissenting from denial of rehearing (en bane), cert, denied, 513 U.S. 967 (1994).
124. Freinkel, A., Koopman, C., & Spiegel, D. (1994). Dissociative symptoms in media eyewitnesses of an execution. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1335-1339.
125. Frey v. Fulcomer, 974 F.2d 348 (3d Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 507 U.S. 954 (1993).
126. Friedman, R. E., & Stevenson, B. A. (1992). Solving Alabama's capital defense problems: It's a dollars and sense thing. Alabama Law Review, 44, 1-60.
127. Frisbie, T., & Garrett, R. (1998). Victims of justice: The true story of two innocent men condemned to die and a prosecution out of control. New York: Avon Books.
128. Furrnan v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).
129. Gallemore, J. L., & Panton, J. H. (1972). Inmate responses to lengthy death row confinement. American Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 167-172.
130. Galliher, J. M., & Galliher, J. F. (2002). A "commonsense" theory of deterrence and the "ideology" of science: The New York State death penalty debate. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 92, 307-333.
131. Gallup News Service. (2001, June 10). The McVeigh execution: American public opinion. Retrieved June 30, 2002, from http://www.gallup.com/content/ login.aspx?ci =4486
132. Garey, M. (1985). The cost of taking a life: Dollars and sense of the death penalty. University of California at Davis Law Review, 18, 1221-1273.
133. The General Assembly of Pennsylvania. (2004). Senate Bill, No. 14. Retrieved June 13. 2004, from http://www.legis.state.pa.us/WU01/LI/BI/BT/2003/0/ SB0014P0152.htm
134. Georgia v. McCollum, 505 U.S. 42 (1992).
135. Gershman, B. L. (1992). The new prosecutors. University of Pittsburgh Law Review, 53, 393-458.
136. Gilmore, M. (1995). Shot in the heart. New York: Anchor Books.
137. Goodwin v. Balkcom, 684 F.2d 794 (11th Cir. 1982).
138. Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976).
139. Gross, S. R. (1996). The risks of death: Why erroneous convictions are common in capital cases. Buffalo Law Review, 44, 469-500.
140. Gross, S. R. (1998). Lost lives: Miscarriages of justice in capital cases. Law and Contemporary Problems, 61, 125-152.
141. Gross, S. R., & Mauro, R. (1984). Death and discrimination: Racial disparities in capital sentencing. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
142. Haines, H. H. (1996). Against capital punishment: The anti-death penalty movement in America, 1972-1994. New York: Oxford University Press.
143. Haney, C. (1984). On the selection of capital juries: The biasing effects of the death-qualification process. Law and Human Behavior. 8, 121-132.
144. Haney, C., Hurtado, A., & Vega, L. (1994). "Modern" death qualification: New data on its biasing effects. Law and Human Behavior, 18, 619-633.
145. Haney, C., & Logan, D. D. (1994). Broken promise: The Supreme Court's response to social science research on capital punishment. Journal of Social Issues, 50, 75-101.
146. Haney, C., & Lynch, M. (1994). Comprehending life and death matters: A preliminary study of California's capital penalty instructions. Law and Human Behavior, 18, 411-436.
147. Haney, C., Sontag, L., & Costanzo, S. (1994). Deciding to take a life: Capital juries, sentencing instructions, and the jurisprudence of death. Journal of Social Issues, 50, 149-176.
148. Harries, K., & Cheatwood, D. (1997). The geography of executions: The capital punishment quagmire in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
149. Harris Interactive. (2000, August 2). The Harris Poll # 41, Table 2. Is Capital Punishment a Deterrent? Retrieved June 24, 2002, from http://www.harrisinteractive.com/ harris_poll/index.asp?PID=101
150. Hengstler, G. (1987, January 1). Attorneys for the damned. American Bar Association Journal, 56-60.
151. Herrera v. Collins, 506 U.S. 390 (1993).
152. Hoffmann, J. L. (1995). Where's the buck? Juror misperception of sentencing responsibility in death penalty cases. Indiana Law Journal 70, 1137-1160.
153. Illinois Government News Network. (2000, January 31). Governor Ryan declares moratorium on executions, will appoint commission to review capital punishment system. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www100. state.il. us/PressReleases/PressReleasesListShow.cfm?CFID=5560881&CFTOKEN = 89280561&RecNum=359
154. In the Matter of Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N. E.2d 1002 (NY 1997).
155. Innocence Protection Act of 2001. H. R. 912, 107th Cong. (2001-2002).
156. Innocence Protection Act of 2001. S. 486, 107th Cong. (2001-2002).
157. Janeway, K. (Reporter). (2002). The application of Indiana's Capital Sentencing Law: Findings of the Indiana Criminal Law Study Commission. Retrieved June 13, 2004. from http://www.in.gov.cji/lawstudy/law_book.pdf
158. Johnson, R. (1989). Condemned to die: Life under sentence of death. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
159. Johnson, R. (1998). Deathwork: A study of the modern execution process. New York: West/Wadsworth.
160. Johnson, S. L. (1985). Black innocence and the white jury. Michigan Law Review, 83, 1611-1708.
161. Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission. (2001, December 10). Review of Virginia's system of capital punishment: The Virginia Legislative Assembly. Retrieved June 17, 2002. from http://jlarc.state.va.us/Meetings/ December01/capital.pdf
162. Jurek v. Texas, 428 U.S. 262 (1976).
163. Kalven, H., Jr. (1968). The quest for the middle range: Empirical inquiry and legal policy. In G. Hazard Jr. (Ed.). Law in a changing America (pp. 56-74). New York: Prentice Hall.
164. Kansas Legislature. (2004). Full history of hill 158. Retrieved June 12, 2004. from http://www.kslegislature.org/cgi-bin/billtrack/index/cgi
165. Kelly v. South Carolina. 534 U.S. 246 (2002).
166. Kirchmeier, J. L. (2002). Another place beyond here: The death penalty moratorium movement in the United States. University of Colorado Law Review, 73, 1-116.
167. Knight v. Florida, 528 U.S. 990 (1999).
168. Kobil, D. T. (1991). The quality of mercy strained: Wresting the pardoning power from the king. Texas Law Review, 69, 569-641.
169. Kobil, D. T. (2003). The evolving role of clemency in capital cases. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 673-692). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
170. Kozinski, A. (1997, February 10). Personal history: Tinkering with death. The New Yorker, pp. 48-53.
171. Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419 (1995).
172. Lackey v. Texas, 514 U.S. 1045 (1995).
173. Lanier, C. S. (1999). The death penalty in the Northeast. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 10, 7-28.
174. Latzer, B., & Cauthen, J. N. G. (2000). Capital appeals revisited. Judicature, 84, 64-71.
175. Ledewitz, B., & Staples, S. (1993). The role of executive clemency in modern death penalty cases. University of Richmond Law Review, 27, 227-239.
176. Lefstein, N. (1996). Reform of defense representation in capital cases: The Indiana experience and its implications for the nation. Indiana Law Review, 29, 495-533.
177. Legislative Research Commission. (2001). Capital punishment: Mentally retarded and race basis. Report to the 2001 Session of the 2001 General Assembly of North Carolina. Retrieved June 19, 2002, from http://www.ncga.state.nc.us/ LegislativePublications/legislativestud_l/legislativerese_/capitalpunishme/ default.htm
178. Liebman, J. S., Pagan, J., Gelman, A., West, V., Davies, G., & Kiss, A. (2002). A broken system, part II: Why there is so much error in capital cases, and what can be done about it. Retrieved June 13, 2004, from http://www2.law.columbia.edu/brokensystem2/index2.html
179. Liebman, J. S., Pagan, J., & West, V. (2000a). A broken system: Error rates in capital cases, 1973-1995. Retrieved June 13, 2004, from http://www2.law.columbia.edu/ instruct ionalservices/liebman/
180. Liebman, J. S., Pagan, J., & West, V. (2000b). Death matters: A reply to Latzer and Cauthen. Judicature, 84, 72-77, 99.
181. Lifton, R. J., & Mitchell, G. (2000). Who owns death? Capital punishment, the American conscience, and the end of executions. New York: Morrow.
182. Little, R. K. (1999). The federal death penalty: Some thoughts about the Department of Justice's role. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 26, 347-508.
183. Lockett v. Ohio, 438 U.S. 586 (1978).
184. Lockhart v. McCree, 476 U.S. 162 (1986).
185. Love, M. C. (2000). Of pardons, politics, and collar buttons: Reflections on the President's duty to be merciful. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 27, 1483-1513.
186. Luginbuhl, J. (1992). Comprehension of judges' instructions in the penalty phase of a capital trial: Focus on mitigating circumstances. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 203-218.
187. Luginbuhl, J., & Howe, J. (1995). Discretion in capital sentencing instructions: Guided or misguided? Indiana Law Journal, 70, 1161-1181.
188. Lynch, D. R. (1998). In their own words: Occupational stress among public defenders. Criminal Law Bulletin, 34, 473-496.
189. Mailer, N. (1980). The executioner's song. New York: Warner Books.
190. Marquart, J. W., Ekland-Olson, S., & Sorensen, J. R. (1994). The rope, the chair, and the needle: Capital punishment in Texas, 1923-1990. Austin: University of Texas Press.
191. McCann, E. M. (1996). Opposing capital punishment: A prosecutor's perspective. Marquette Law Review, 79, 649-706.
192. McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987).
193. McCleskey v. Zant, 499 U.S. 467 (1991).
194. McKoy v. North Carolina, 494 U.S. 433 (1990).
195. Mello, M., & Perkins, P. J. (2003). Closing the circle: The illusion of lawyers for people litigating for their lives at the Fin de Siècle. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 347-384). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
196. Meltsner, M. (1973). Cruel and unusual: The Supreme Court and capital punishment. New York: Random House.
197. Mills v. Maryland, 486 U.S. 367 (1988).
198. Monahan, J. (1981). Predicting violent behavior: An assessment of clinical techniques. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
199. Moon, M. M., Wright, J. P., Cullen, F. T., & Pealer, J. A. (2000). Putting kids to death: Specifying public support for juvenile capital punishment. Justice Quarterly, 17, 663-684.
200. Moore, K. D. (1989). Pardons: Justice, mercy, and the public interest. New York: Oxford University Press.
201. Morgan v. Illinois, 504 U.S. 719 (1992).
202. Murray v. Giarratano, 492 U.S. 1 (1989).
203. NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. (2000, Winter). Death row U. S. A. New York: Author.
204. Nakell, B., & Hardy, K. A. (1987). The arbitrariness of the death penalty. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
205. Napolitano, J. (2001). Capital Case Commission Interim Report. Office of the Attorney General, State of Arizona. Retrieved June 24, 2002, from http://www.ag.state.az.us/CCC/IntRpt.html
206. National Death Penalty Moratorium Act of 2001, H. R. 1038, 107th Cong. (2001).
207. National Death Penalty Moratorium Act of 2001. S. 233, 107th Cong. (2001).
208. Neises, M. L., & Dillehay, R. C. (1987). Death qualification and conviction proneness: Witt and Witherspoon compared. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 5, 479-494.
209. Nevada Legislature. (2001, June 14). Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 3. Joint Rules Committee. Retrieved June 17, 2002, from http://www.leg.state.nv. us/17thspecial/bills/acr/acr3.html
210. New York Capital Defender Office. (2003). Capital punishment in New York State: Statistics from eight years of representation. Retrieved June 10, 2004. from http:// www.nycdo.org/8yr.html
211. North Carolina Coalition for a Moratorium. (2004). Act to establish a two year moratorium on executions. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://capwiz.com/ncmoratorium/ issues/bills/?bill = 5682146
212. Ohio Adult Parole Authority v. Woodard, 523 U.S. 272 (1998).
213. Ornish, S. A. (1995). Witnessing an execution. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1404-1405.
214. Paduano, A., & Stafford Smith, C. A. (1987). Deathly errors: Juror misperceptions concerning parole in the imposition of the death penalty. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 18, 211-257.
215. Paternoster, R. (1983). Race of victim and location of crime: The decision to seek the death penalty in South Carolina. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74, 754-785.
216. Paternoster, R. (1984). Prosecutorial discretion in requesting the death penalty: A case of victim-based racial discrimination. Law and Society Review, 18, 437-478.
217. Paternoster, R. (1991). Capital punishment in America. New York: Lexington Books.
218. Paternoster, R., & Brame, R. (2003). An empirical analysis of Maryland's death sentencing system with respect to the influence of race and legal jurisdiction. Retrieved June 12, 2004, from http://www.urhome.umd.edu/ newsdesk/pdf/finalrep.pdf
219. Pennsylvania v. Finley, 481 U.S. 551 (1987).
220. Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302 (1989).
221. People v. Anderson, 493 P.2d 880 (Cal. 1972), cert. denied, 406 U.S. 958 (1972).
222. People v. Garrison. 765 P.2d 419 (Cal. 1989).
223. Peterson, R. D., & Bailey, W. C. (2003). Is capital punishment an effective deterrent for murder? An examination of social science research. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with
224. Pierce, G. L., & Radelet, M. L. (2002, March 20). Race, region, and death sentencing in Illinois, 1988-1997. State of Illinois. Retrieved June 21, 2002, from http://www .idoc.state.il.us/ccp/ccp/reports/techinical_appendix/ section_l/a_race_region_death.pdf
225. Pokorak, J. J. (1998). Probing the capital prosecutor's perspective: Race of the discretionary actors. Cornell Law Review, 83, 1811-1820.
226. Pridemore, W. A. (2000). An empirical examination of commutations and executions in post-Furman capital cases. Justice Quarterly, 17, 159-183.
227. Proffitt v. Florida. 428 U.S. 242 (1976).
228. Pulley v. Harris, 465 U.S. 37 (1984).
229. Radelet, M. L., & Bedau, H. A. (1998). The execution of the innocent. Law and Contemporary Problems, 6, 105-124.
230. Radelet, M. L., Bedau, H. A., & Putnam, C. E. (1992). In spite of innocence. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
231. Radelet, M. L., Lofquist, W. S., & Bedau, H. A. (1996). Prisoners released from death rows since 1970 because of doubts about their guilt. Thomas M. Cooley Law Review, 13, 907-962.
232. Radelet, M. L., & Marquart, J. (1990). Assessing dangerousness during penalty phases of capital trials. Albany Law Review, 54, 845-861.
233. Radelet, M. L., & Mello, M. (1992). Death-to-life overrides: Saving the resources of the Florida Supreme Court. Florida State University Law Review, 20, 195-228.
234. Radelet, M. L., & Pierce, G. L. (1985). Race and prosecutorial discretion in homicide cases. Law and Society Review, 19, 587-621.
235. Radelet, M. L., Vandiver, M., & Berardo, F. (1983). Families, prisons, and men with death sentences. Journal of Family Issues, 4, 593-612.
236. Radelet, M. L., & Zsembik, B. A. (1993). Executive clemency in post-Furman capital cases. University of Richmond Law Review, 27, 289-314.
237. Ring v. Arizona, 536 U.S. 584 (2002).
238. Roach, K. (1999). Inquiring into the causes of wrongful convictions. Criminal Law Bulletin, 35, 152-169.
239. Roper v. Simmons, 124 S. Ct. 1171 (2004).
240. Rosenberg, T. (1995, July 16). The deadliest D. A. The New York Times, pp. 20-25, 34, 42, 46-52.
241. Ryan, G. H. (2000, May 4). Executive Order creating the Governor's Commission on Capital Punishment. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www.idoc.state.il.us/ccp/ccp/executive_order/executive_order.html
242. Saldano v. Texas, 530 U.S. 1212 (2000). on remand, Saldano v. State, 70 S. W.3d 873 (Tex. Crim. App. 2002).
243. Sandys, M., & McClelland, S. (2003). Stacking the deck for guilt and death: The failure of death qualification to ensure impartiality. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 385-411). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
244. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2000). Actual innocence: Five days to execution and other dispatches from the wrongly convicted. New York: Doubleday.
245. Sellin, T. (1967). Capital punishment. New York: Harper & Row.
246. Shafer v. South Carolina, 121 S. Ct. 1263 (2001).
247. Simmons v. South Carolina, 512 U.S. 154 (1994).
248. Smith, K. B. (1997). Explaining variation in state-level homicide rates: Does crime policy pay? Journal of Politics, 59, 350-367.
249. Sorensen, J. R., & Marquart, J. W. (1990-1991). Prosecutorial and jury decision making in post-Furman Texas capital cases. New York University Review of Law & Social Change, 18, 743-776.
250. Sorensen, J. R., & Marquart, J. (2003). Future dangerousness and incapacitation. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 283-300). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
251. Sorensen, J., Wrinkle, R., Brewer, V., & Marquart, J. (1999). Capital punishment and deterrence: Examining the effect of executions on murder in Texas. Crime and Delinquency, 45, 481-493.
252. Spangenberg, R. L., & Walsh, E. R. (1989). Capital punishment or life imprisonment? Some cost considerations. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, 23, 45-58.
253. Spaziano v. Florida, 468 U.S. 447 (1984).
254. Sprenger, S. M. (1988). A critical evaluation of state supreme court proportionality review in death sentence cases. Iowa Law Review, 73, 719-741.
255. Stanford v. Kentucky, 492 U.S. 361 (1989).
256. State of Maryland. (2002, May 9). Governor Glendening issues a stay of execution in the case of Wesley Eugene Baker. Governor's Press Office. Retrieved June 14, 2002, from http://www.gov.state.md.us/gov/press/2002/may/html/baker. html
257. State of New Jersey. 210th Legislature. (2004). Assembly, No. 1913. Retrieved June 13, 2004, from http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/2002/Bills/A2000/ 1913_I1 .htm
258. State v. Kleypas. 40 P.3d 139 (Kansas, 2001).
259. Strafer, G. R. (1983). Volunteering for execution. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 74, 860-912.
260. Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668 (1984).
261. Strickler v. Greene. 527 U.S. 263 (1999).
262. Symposium. (1994). Politics and the death penalty: Can rational disclosure and due process survive the perceived political pressure? Fordham Urban Law Journal, 21, 239-298.
263. Symposium. (2002). Symposium: Addressing capital punishment through statutory reform (Electronic version]. Ohio State Law Journal, 63. Retrieved June 20, 2002, from http://www.osu.edu/units/law/LawJournal/631htm
264. Tabak, R. J. (1990-1991). Is racism irrelevant? Or should the Fairness in Death Sentencing Act be enacted to substantially diminish racial discrimination in capital sentencing? New York University Review of Law and Social Change, 18, 777-806.
265. Texas Code Crim. Proc. Art. 37, 071 (2)(b)(1) (Vernon's 1999).
266. Texas Defender Service. (2000). A state of denial: Texas justice and the death penalty. Houston: Author.
267. Thompson v. Oklahoma. 487 U.S. 815 (1988).
268. Thompson, W. C. (1989). Death qualification after Wainwright v. Witt and Lockhart v. McCree. Law and Human Behavior, 13, 185-215.
269. Thompson, W. C., Cowan, C. L., Ellsworth, P. C., & Harrington, J. C. (1984). Death penalty attitudes and conviction proneness: The translation of attitudes into verdicts. Law and Human Behavior, 8, 95-113.
270. Thomson, E. (1997). Deterrence versus brutalization: The case of Arizona. Homicide Studies, 1, 110-128.
271. Tiersma, P. M. (1995). Dictionaries and death: Do capital jurors understand mitigation? Utah Law Review, 1995, 1-49.
272. Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958).
273. Tucker, J. C. (1997). May God have mercy: A true story of crime and punishment. New York: Norton.
274. United States Department of Justice. (1996). Convicted by juries, exonerated by science: Case studies in the use of DNA evidence to establish innocence after trial. Office of Justice programs, NCJ 161258. Retrieved June 24, 2002. from http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/dnaevid.pdf
275. United States Department of Justice. (1999, September). Postconviction DNA testing: Recommendations for handling requests. Office of Justice programs, NCJ 177626. Retrieved June 24, 2002, from http://www.ncjrs.org/pdftiles1/nij/ 177626.pdf
276. United States Department of Justice. (2000, September 12). The Federal death penalty system: A statistical survey (1988-2000). Retrieved June 24, 2002, from http:// www.usdoj.gov/dag/pubdoc/dpsurvey.html
277. United States Department of Justice. (2003, November). Capital punishment 2002. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Bulletin NCJ 201848. Retrieved June 10, 2004. from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cp02.pdf
278. United States General Accounting Office. (1990). Death penalty sentencing: Research indicates pattern of racial disparities. NCJ 127081. Washington, DC: Author.
279. Vandiver, M. (1993). The quality of mercy: Race and clemency in Florida death penalty cases. 1924-1966. University of Richmond Law Review, 27, 315-343.
280. Vandiver, M. (2003). The impact of the death penalty on the families of homicide victims and of condemned prisoners. In J. R. Acker, R. M. Bohm, & C. S. Lanier (Eds.), America's experiment with capital punishment: Reflections on the past, present, and future of the ultimate penal sanction (2nd ed., pp. 613-645). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
281. Vick, D. W. (1995). Poorhouse justice: Underfunded indigent defense services and arbitrary death sentences. Buffalo Law Review, 43, 329-460.
282. VA. Code ANN. § 19. 2-327.01 (2004).
283. VA. Code ANN. § 19.2-327.2 (2002).
284. VA. Code ANN. § 19.2-327.3 (2002).
285. Va. Supreme Court Rule 1:1 (2001).
286. Wainwright v. Sykes, 433 U.S. 72 (1977).
287. Wainwright v. Witt, 469 U.S. 412 (1985).
288. Wallace, D. H., & Sorensen, J. R. (1998). A state supreme court's review of comparative proportionality: Explanations for three disproportionate and executed death sentences. Thomas Jefferson Law Review, 20, 207-276.
289. White, W. S. (1987). The death penalty in the eighties: An examination of the modern system of capital punishment. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
290. Whitehead, J. T. (1998). "Good ol' boys" and the chair: Death penalty attitudes of policy makers in Tennessee. Crime and Delinquency, 44, 245-256.
291. Wiener, R. L., Pritchard, C. C., & Weston, M. (1995). Comprehensibility of approved jury instructions in capital murder cases. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 455-467.
292. Winick, B. J. (1982). Prosecutorial peremptory challenge practices in capital cases: An empirical study and a constitutional analysis. Michigan Law Review, 81, 1-98.
293. Witherspoon v. Illinois, 391 U.S. 510 (1968).
294. Wolfe, B. H. (1973). Pileup on death row. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
295. Wolfgang, M. E., Kelly, A., & Nolde, H. C. (1962). Comparison of the executed and the commuted among admissions to death row. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 53, 301-311.
296. Young v. Kemp, 758 F.2d 514 (11th Cir. 1985).
297. Young v. Zant. 727 F.2d 1489 (11th Cir. 1984). cert. denied, 470 U.S. 1009 (1985).