Pathogen survival in the external environment and the evolution of virulence

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

Volumn 79, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 849-869

  Walther, Bruno A ^a,b,c   Ewald, Paul W ^a  

^a AMHERST COLLEGE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Durability; Evolution; Infectious disease; Mortality; Sit and wait pathogens; Transmission; Virulence

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTHRAX; BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPHTHERIAE; DISEASE CARRIER; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION; FOOD CONTAMINATION; GENETIC LINKAGE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HYPOTHESIS; INFECTION; INFLUENZA VIRUS; INSECT CONTROL; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROORGANISM DETECTION; MORTALITY; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; NONHUMAN; PREDICTION; QUANTITATIVE DIAGNOSIS; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; REVIEW; SMALLPOX VIRUS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; SURVIVAL; SURVIVAL TIME; VIRULENCE;

ANIMALS; BACTERIA; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EVOLUTION, MOLECULAR; HUMANS; MORTALITY; TIME FACTORS; VIRULENCE; VIRUSES;

ANTHRAX; BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS; CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPHTHERIAE; HEXAPODA; INFLUENZA VIRUS; INSECTA; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MYCOBACTERIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; VARIOLA; VARIOLA VIRUS;

EID: 9644295650     PISSN: 14647931     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1464793104006475     Document Type: Review

References (244)

1. ABE, T. (1949). Über die Lebensdauer der Tuberkelbazillen in Exkreten. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 50, 329-336.
2. ADAIR, J. C., RING, W. H. JORDAN, W. S. & ELWYN, R. A. (1971). Ten-year experience with IPPB in the treatment of acute laryngotracheobronchitis. Anesthesia & Analgesia 50, 649-654.
3. ADAMS, W. G., DEAVER, K. A., COCHI, S. L., PLIKAYTIS, B. D., ZELL, E. R., BROOME, C. V. & WENGER, J. D. (1993). Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era. Journal of the American Medical Association 269, 221-226.
4. ALEXANDER, H. E., ELLIS, C. & LEIDY, G. (1942). Treatment of type-specific Hemophilus influenzae infections in infancy and childhood. Journal of Pediatrics 20, 673-698.
5. ANDERSON, R. M. & MAY, R. M. (1981). The population dynamics of microparasites and their invertebrate hosts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 291, 451-524.
6. ANDERSON, R. M. & MAY, R. M. (1982). Coevolution of hosts and parasites. Parasitology 85, 411-426.
7. ANSARI, S. A., SPRINGTHORPE, V. S., SATTAR, S. A., RIVARD, S. & RAHMAN, M. (1991). Potential role of hands in the spread of respiratory viral infections: studies with human parainfluenza virus 3 and rhinovirus 14. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 29, 2115-2119.
8. ARCHER, D. L. (1996). Preservation microbiology and safety: evidence that stress enhances virulence and triggers adaptive mutations. Trends in Food Science & Technology 7, 91-95.
9. AUGUSTINE, A. E. (1929). The transfer of tuberculosis by dust and other agents. Journal of Preventive Medicine 3, 121-138.
10. BALOWS, A., TRUEPER, H. G., DWORKIN, M., HARDER, W. & SCHLEIFER, K. H. (1992). The Prokaryotes, Vol. I. Springer-Verlag, New York.
11. BARKIN, R. M. (1975a). Measles mortality: a retrospective look at the vaccine era. American Journal of Epidemiology 102, 341-349.
12. BARKIN, R. M. (1975b). Measles mortality. Analysis of the primary cause of death. American Journal of Diseases of Children 129, 307-309.
13. BENENSON, A. S. (1989). Smallpox. In Viral Infections of Humans. 3rd Edn (ed. A. S. Evans), pp. 633-658. Plenum, New York.
14. BENENSON, A. S. (1990). Control of Communicable Diseases in Man, 15th Edn. Official report of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.
15. BETTS, R. F. & DOUGLAS, R. G. (1990). Influenza virus. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1306-1325. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
16. BISNO, A. L. (1990). Streptococcus pyogenes. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas, & J. E. Bennett), pp. 1519-1528. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
17. BLACK, F. L. (1984). Measles. In Viral Infections of Humans, 2nd Edn (ed. A. S. Evans), pp. 397-418. Plenum, New York.
18. BOOTS, M. & SASAKI, A. (1999). 'Small worlds' and the evolution of virulence: infection occurs locally and at a distance. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266, 1933-1938.
19. BONHOEFFER, S., LENSKI, R. E. & EBERT, D. (1996). The curse of the pharaoh: the evolution of virulence in pathogens with long living propagules. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263, 715-721.
20. BORCHERT, A. (1966). Die Krankheiten und Schädlinge der Honigbiene. S. Hirzel Verlag, Leipzig, Germany.
21. BORG, M. A. (2003). Bed occupancy and overcrowding as determinant factors in the incidence of MRSA infections within general ward settings. Journal of Hospital Infection 54, 316-318.
22. BRADY, M. T., EVANS, J. & CUARTAS, J. (1990). Survival and disinfection of parainfluenza viruses on environmental surfaces. American Journal of Infection Control 18, 18-23.
23. BRASSEL, J. & BENZ, G. (1979). Selection of a strain of the granulosis virus of the codling moth with improved resistance against artificial ultraviolet radiation and sunlight. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 33, 358-363.
24. BREMERMANN, H. J. & PICKERING, J. (1983). A game-theoretical model of parasite virulence. Journal of Theoretical Biology 100, 411-426.
25. BROOKS, G. F. & BUCHANAN, T. M. (1970). Pertussis in the United States. Journal of Infectious Diseases 122, 123-125.
26. BUCKLAND, F. E. & TYRRELL, D. A. J. (1962). Loss of infectivity on drying various viruses. Nature 195, 1063-1064.
27. BULL, J. J. (1994). Perspective virulence. Evolution 48, 1423-1437.
28. BURROWS, W. (1968). Textbook of Microbiology, 19th Edn. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, London, Toronto.
29. CHANOCK, R. M. & MCINTOSH, K. (1985). Parainfluenza viruses. In Fields Virology (eds. B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe), pp. 1241-1253. Raven Press, New York.
30. CHANOCK, R. M. & PARROTT, R. H. (1963). Myxoviruses: parainfluenza. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 88, 152-166.
31. CHANOCK, R. M. & PARROTT, R. H. (1965). Respiratory syncytial virus. In Viral and Rickettsial Infections in Man, 4th Edn (eds. F. L. Horsfall and I. Tamm), pp. 775-783. J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and Montreal.
32. COONEY, M. K., Fox, J. P. & HALL, C. E. (1975). The Seattle virus watch. VI. Observations of infections with and illness due to parainfluenza, mumps and respiratory syncytial viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. American Journal of Epidemiology 101, 532-551.
33. CROSBIE, W. E. & WRIGHT, H. D. (1941). Diphtheria bacilli in floor dust. Lancet i, 656-659.
34. CROSSLEY, K., LANDESMAN, B. & ZASKE, D. (1979). An outbreak of infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and aminoglycosides. II. Epidemiologic studies. Journal of Infectious Diseases 139, 280-287.
35. CRUICKSHANK, R. (1941). Infected dust. Lancet i, 493.
36. CRUICKSHANK, R., DUGUID, J. P. & SWAIN, R. H. A. (1965). Medical Microbiology, 11th Edn. Livingstone, Edinburgh.
37. CRUICKSHANK, R. & GODBER, G. E. (1939). The aerial spread of streptococcal infections. Lancet i, 741-746.
38. CRUICKSHANK, R. & MUIR, C. (1940). Air-borne streptococcal infection following influenza. Lancet i, 1155-1157.
39. DAJANI, A. S., ASMAR, B. I. & THIRUMOORTHI, M. C. (1979). Systemic Haemophilus influenzae disease: an overview. Journal of Pediatrics 94, 355-364.
40. DAUER, C. C. & SERFLING, R. E. (1961). Mortality from Influenza 1957-1958 and 1959-1960. International Conference on Asian Influenza. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 83, 15-28.
41. DAVID, W. A. L. (1969). The effect of ultraviolet radiation of known wavelengths on a granulosis virus of Pieris brassicae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 14, 336-342.
42. DAVIS, B. D., DULBECCO, R., EISEN, H. N., GINSBERG, H. S., WOOD, W. B. & MCCARTHY, M. (eds.) (1973). Microbiology, 2nd Edn. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, Maryland.
43. DAY, T. (2002a). On the evolution of virulence and the relationship between various measures of mortality. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 269, 1317-1323.
44. DAY, T. (2002b). The evolution of virulence in vector-borne and directly transmitted parasites. Theoretical Population Biology 62, 199-213.
45. DEJONG, J. G. & WINKLER, K. C. (1964). Survival of measles virus in air. Nature 201, 1054-1055.
46. DES PREZ, R. M. & GOODWIN, R. A. (1985). Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (eds. G. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1383-1406. Wiley Medical Publication, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
47. DES PREZ, R. M. & HEIM, C. R. (1990). Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1877-1906. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
48. DICK, E. C., JENNINGS, L. C., MINK, K. A., WARTGOW, C. D. & INHORN, S. L. (1987). Aerosol transmission of rhinovirus colds. Journal of Infectious Diseases 156, 442-448.
49. DOOLEY, S. W., JARVIS, W. R., MARTONE, W. J. & SNIDER, D. E. (1992a). Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Annals of Internal Medicine 117, 257-259.
50. DOOLEY, S. W., VILLARINO, M. E., LAWRENCE, M., SALINAS, L., AMIL, S., RULLAN, J. V., JARVIS, W. R., BLOCH, A. B. & CAUTHEN, G. M. (1992b). Nosocomial transmission of tuberculosis in a hospital unit for HIV-infected patients. Journal of the American Medical Association 267, 2632-2634.
51. DOUGLAS, R. G. J. (1973). Herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, varicella-herpes zoster, and Epstein-Barr virus. In Viral and Mycoplasmal Infections of the Respiratory Tract (ed. V. Knight), pp. 167-199. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.
52. DOWLING, J. N., SHEEHE, P. R. & FELDMAN, H. A. (1971). Pharyngeal pneumococcal acquisitions in 'normal' families: a longitudinal study. Journal of Infectious Diseases 124, 9-17.
53. DOWNIE, A. W. (1965). Poxvirus Group. In Viral and Rickettsial Infections in Man, 4th Edn (eds. F. L. Horsfall and I. Tamm). pp. 932-964. J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and Montreal.
54. DOWNIE, A. W. & ABERD, M. D. (1940). Survival of meningococci on swabs and blood agar. Lancet i, 36-37.
55. DOWNIE, A. W. & DUMBELL, K. R. (1947). Survival of variola virus in dried exudate and crusts from smallpox patients. Lancet i,
56. DUBOS, R. (1965). Man Adapting. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
57. DUGUID, J. P. & WALLACE, A. T. (1948). Air infection with dust liberated from clothing. Lancet ii, 845-849.
58. DUNKLIN, E. W. & PUCK, T. T. (1948). The lethal effects of relative humidity on airborne bacteria. Journal of Experimental Medicine 87, 87-101.
59. EDWARD, D. G. (1941). Resistance of influenza virus as to drying and its demonstration on dust. Lancet ii, 664-666.
60. ENGLEY, F. B. (1955). The persistence (durability) of microorganisms: I. airborne organisms. Texas Reports of Biological Medicine 13, 712-757.
61. ENRIGHT, M. C. (2003). The evolution of a resistant pathogen - the case of MRSA. Current Opinion in Pharmacology 3, 474-479.
62. EWALD, P. W. (1983). Host-parasite relations, vectors, and the evolution of disease severity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14, 465-485.
63. EWALD, P. W. (1987). Pathogens-induced cycling of outbreak insect populations. In Insect outbreaks (eds. P. Barbosa and J. C. Schultz), pp. 269-286. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego.
64. EWALD, P. W. (1988). Cultural vectors, virulence, and the emergence of evolutionary epidemiology. Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology 5, 215-245.
65. EWALD, P. W. (1991a). Transmission modes and the evolution of virulence, with special reference to cholera, influenza and AIDS. Human Nature 2, 1-30.
66. EWALD, P. W. (1991b). Waterborne transmission and the evolution of virulence among gastrointestinal bacteria. Epidemiology and Infection 106, 83-119.
67. EWALD, P. W. (1994). Evolution of Infectious Disease. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
68. EWALD, P. W. (1995). The evolution of virulence: a unifying link between parasitology and ecology. Journal of Parasitology 81, 659-669.
69. EWALD, P.W. (1996a). Guarding against the most dangerous emerging pathogens: insights from evolutionary biology. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2, 245-257.
70. EWALD, P. W. (1996b). Vaccines as evolutionary tools: the virulence antigen strategy. In Concepts in Vaccine Development (ed. S. H. E. Kaufmann), pp. 1-25. de Gruyter & Co. : Berlin.
71. EWALD, P. W. (1998). The evolution of virulence and emerging diseases. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 75, 480-491.
72. EWALD, P. W. & DE LEO, G. (2001). Alternative transmission modes and the evolution of virulence. In Virulence management: mathematical models of virulence evolution (eds. U. Dieckmann and H. Metz), pp. 271-311. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis: Vienna, Austria.
73. FELDMAN, H. A. (1972). Meningococcal infections. Advances in Internal Medicine 18, 117-140.
74. FELSENSTEIN, J. (1985). Phylogenies and the comparative method. American Naturalist 125, 1-15.
75. FENNER, F. & RATCLIFFE, F. N. (1965). Myxomatosis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
76. FENNER, F., HENDERSON, D. A., ARITA, I., JEZEK, Z. & LADNYI, I. D. (1988). Smallpox and its eradication. WHO, Geneva.
77. FINLAND, M. (1982). Pneumococcal Infections. In Bacterial Infections of Humans (eds. A. S. Evans and H. A. Feldman), pp. 417-433. Plenum, New York.
78. FISCHL, M. A., DAIKOS, G. L., UTTAMCHANDANI, R. B., POBLETE, R. B., MORENO, J. N., REYES, R. R., BOOTA, A. M., THOMPSON, L. M., CLEARY, T. J., OLDHAM, S. A., SALDANA, M. J. & LAI, S. H. (1992a). Clinical presentation and outcome of patients with HIV infection and tuberculosis caused by multiple-drug-resistant bacilli. Annals of Internal Medicine 117, 184-190.
79. FISCHL, M. A., UTTAMCHANDANI, R. B., DAIKOS, G. L., POBLETE, R. B., MORENO, J. N., REYES, R. R., BOOTA, A. M., THOMPSON, L. M., CLEARY, T. J. & LAI, S. H. (1992b). An outbreak of tuberculosis caused by multiple-drug- resistant tubercle bacilli among patients with HIV infection. Annals of Internal Medicine 117, 177-183.
80. FLORMAN, A. L. & HOLZMAN, R. S. (1980). Nosocomial scalded skin syndrome. American Journal of Diseases of Children 134, 1043-1045.
81. FLÜGGE, C. (1906). Die im Hygienischen Institut der Königl. Universität Breslau während der Genickstarre-Epidemie im Jahre 1905 ausgeführten Untersuchungen. Klinisches Jahrbuch 15, 353-372.
82. FOY, H. M., KENNY, G. E., COONEY, M. K. & ALLAN, I. D. (1979). Long-term epidemiology of infections with Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Journal of Infectious Diseases 139, 681-687.
83. FRANCIS, T. & MAASSAB, H. F. (1965). Influenza viruses. In Viral and Rickettsial Infections in Man, 4th Edn (eds. F. L. Horsfall and I. Tamm), pp. 689-740. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
84. FRANK, S. A. (1996). Models of parasite virulence. Quarterly Review of Biology 71, 37-78.
85. FRENKEL, L. D. & BELLANTI, J. A. (1981). Immunology of Measles, Mumps and Rubella Viruses. In Immunology of Human Infection. Part II: Viruses and Parasites; Immunodiagnosis and Prevention of Infectious Disease (eds. A. J. Nahmias and R. J. O'Reilly), pp. 135-163. Plenum, New York.
86. FROST, W. H. (1928). Infection, immunity and disease in the epidemiology of diphtheria. With special reference to some studies in Baltimore. Journal of Preventive Medicine 2, 325-343.
87. FUJITA, J., NEGAYAMA, K., TAKIGAWA, K., YAMAGISHI, Y., KUBO, A., YAMAJI, Y. & TAKAHARA, J. (1992). Activity of antibiotics against resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 29, 539-546.
88. GALLAGHER, P. G. & WATANAKUNAKORN, C. (1989). Pseudomonas bacteremia in a community-teaching hospital. Review of Infectious Diseases 11, 846-852.
89. GANDON, S. (1998). The curse of the pharaoh hypothesis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Mon B 265, 1545-1552.
90. GARLAND, T., HARVEY, P. H. & IVES, A. R. (1992). Procedures for the analysis of comparative data using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Systematic Biology 41, 18-32.
91. GELB, L. D. (1985). Varicella-zoster Virus. In Fields Virology (eds. B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe), pp. 591-627. Raven Press, New York.
92. GERSHON, A. A. (1990). Rubella virus (German measles). In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1242-1247. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
93. GEZON, H. M., SCHABERG, M. J. & KLEIN J. O. (1973). Concurrent epidemics of Staphylococcus aureus and group A streptococcus disease in a newborn nursery - control with penicillin G and hexachlorophene bathing. Pediatrics 51, 383-390.
94. GIAMALANCO, A., CHIARINI, A., STROFFOLINI, T., DEMATTIA, D., CHIARAMONTE, M., MOSCHEN, M. E., MURA, I., RIGO, G., TAORMINA, S., SARZANA, A., MAZZA, G. & SCARPA, B. (1991). Seroepidemiology of pertussis in Italy. Review of Infectious Diseases 13, 1216-1220.
95. GLODE, M. P., DAUM, R. S., GOLDMANN, D. A., LECLAIR, J. & SMITH, A. (1980). Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis: a contagious disease of children. British Medical Journal 280, 899-901.
96. GOLDSTEIN, E. & HOEPRICH, P. D. (1977). Diphtheria. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 247-255. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, Maryland.
97. GORDON, J. E. & HOOD, R. I. (1951). Whooping cough and its epidemiological anomalies. American Journal of Medical Science 222, 333-361.
98. GORMAN, O. T., BEAN, W. J., KAWAOKA, Y., DONATELLI, I., Guo, Y. & WEBSTER, R. G. (1991). Evolution of influenza A virus nucleoprotein genes: implications for the origins of H1N1 human and classical swine viruses. Journal of Virology 65, 3704-3714.
99. GRADON, J. D., TIMPONE, J. G. & SCHNITTMAN, S. M. (1992). Emergence of unusual opportunistic pathogens in AIDS: a review. Clinical Infectious Diseases 15, 134-157.
100. GRAFEN, A. (1989). The phylogenetic regression. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 326, 119-156.
101. GRANGE, J. M. (1984). Tuberculosis. In Topley & Wilson's Principles of Bacteriology, Virology, & Immunology, 7 Edn (eds. G. S. Wilson and A. A. Miles), pp. 32-61. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
102. GRANOFF, D. M. & BASDEN, M. (1980). Haemophilus influenzae infections in Fresno County, California: a prospective study of the effects of age, race, and contact with a case on incidence of disease. Journal of Infectious Diseases 141, 40-46.
103. GREENFIELD, S., SHEEHE, P. R. & FELDMAN, H. A. (1971). Meningococcal carriage in a population of 'normal' families. Journal of Infectious Diseases 123, 67-73.
104. GREENOUGH, W. B. & BENNETT, R. G. (1990). Diarrhea in the elderly. In Principles of geriatric medicine (eds. W. R. Hazzard, R. Andres, E. L. Bierman and J. P. Blass), pp. 1168-1176. McGraw Hill, New York.
105. GWALTNEY, J. M. & HENDLEY, J. O. (1978). Rhinovirus transmission: one if by air, two if by hand. American Journal of Epidemiology 107, 357-361.
106. GWALTNEY, J. M., MOSKALSKI, P. B. & HENDLEY, J. O. (1978). Hand-to-hand transmission of rhinovirus colds. Annals of Internal Medicine 88, 463-467.
107. HALL, C. B., GEIMAN, J. M. & DOUGLAS, J. R. G. (1980). Possible transmission by fomites of respiratory syncytial virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases 141, 98-102.
108. HAMON-POUPINEL, V., LECOUTOUR, X., VERGNAUD, M. & MALBRUNY, B. (1991). Experience of two intensive care units. Presse Medicale 20, 1592-1594.
109. HARE, R. (1941). Haemolytic streptococci in normal people and carriers. Lancet i, 85-88.
110. HARPER, G. J. (1961). Airborne Microorganisms: Survival tests with four viruses. Journal of Hygiene 59, 479-486.
111. HARPER, G. J. (1963). The influence of environment on the survival of airborne virus particles in the laboratory. Archiv für gesamte Virusforschung 13, 64-71.
112. HARVEY, P. H. & PAGEL, M. D. (1991). The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
113. HART, B. L. (1997). Behavioural defence. In Host-parasite evolution: general principles and avian models (eds. D. H. Clayton and J. Moore). pp. 59-77. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
114. HEFFRON, R. (1939). Pneumonia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
115. HENDLEY, J. O. (1990). Parainfluenza viruses. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1255-1260. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
116. HENDLEY, J. O., SANDE, M. A., STEWART, P. M. & GWALTNEY J. M. (1975). Spread of Streptococcus pneumoniae in families. I. Carriage rates and distribution of types. Journal of Infectious Diseases 132, 55-61.
117. HENDLEY, J. O., WENZEL, R. P. & GWALTNEY, J. M. (1973). Transmission of rhinovirus colds by self-inoculation. New England Journal of Medicine 288, 1361-1364.
118. HOEPRICH, P. D. (1989). Host-parasite relationships and the pathogenesis of infectious disease. In Infectious diseases, 4th Edn (eds. P. D. Hoeprich and M. C. Hoeprich). J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.
119. Hoffman, M. S. (ed.) (1990). The World Almanac and Book of Facts. Pharos Books, Scripps Howard Company, New York.
120. HORSTMANN, D. M. (1979). Mumps. In Cecil Textbook of Medicine (eds. P. B. Beeson, W. McDermott and J. B. Wyngaarden). pp. 261-264. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
121. HOSTETTER, D. L. & BELL, M. R. (1985). Natural dispersal of baculoviruses in the environment. In Viral Insecticides for Biological Control (eds. K. Maramorosch and K. E. Sherman). Academic Press, Orlando, USA.
122. ISEMAN, M. D. (1992). A leap of faith: what can we do to curtail intrainstitutional transmission of tuberculosis. Annals of Internal Medicine 117, 251-253.
123. ITO, Y., TSURUDOME, M., HISHIYAMA, M. & YAMADA, A. (1987). Immunological interrelationships among human and non-human paramyxoviruses revealed by immunoprecipitation. Journal of General Virology 68, 1289-1297.
124. JACKSON, G. G. & MULDOON, R. L. (1975). Viruses Causing Common Respiratory Infections in Man. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London.
125. KARIM, Y. G., IJAZ, M. K., SATTAR, S. A. & JOHNSON-LUSSENBURG, C. M. (1985). Effect of relative humidity on the airborne survival of rhinovirus-14. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 31, 1058-1061.
126. KAWANO, M., BANDO, H., YUASA, T., KONDO, K., TSURUDOME, M., KOMADA, H., NISHIO, M. & ITO, Y. (1990). Sequence determination of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene of human parainfluenza type 2 virus and the construction of a phylogenetic tree for HN proteins of all the paramyxoviruses that are infectious to humans. Virology 174, 308-313.
127. KEMPE, C. H. (1979). Variola and Vaccinia. In Cecil Textbook of Medicine (eds. P. B. Beeson, W. Mcdermott and J. B. Wyngaarden), pp. 255-261. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
128. KENWOOD, H. & DOVE, E. L. (1915). The risks from tuberculosis infection retained in books. Lancet ii, 66-68.
129. KILBOURNE, E. D. (1979). Rubella (German measles). In Cecil Textbook of Medicine (eds. P. B. Beeson, W. Mcdermott and J. B. Wyngaarden), pp. 250-252. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
130. KILBOURNE, E. D. (1991). New viruses and new disease: mutation, evolution and ecology. Current Opinion in Immunology 3, 518-524.
131. KINGSTON, D. (1968). Towards the isolation of respiratory syncytial virus from the environment. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 31, 498-510.
132. KLAYMAN, D. L. (1989). Weeding out malaria. Natural History 98(10), 18-27.
133. KNOPF, S. A. (1910). Tuberculosis. A Presentable and Curable Disease. Moffat, Yard & Co., New York.
134. KRAUSE, R. M. (1992). The origin of plagues: old and new. Science 257, 1073-1078.
135. KRAVETZ, H. M., KNIGHT, V., CHANOCK, R. M., MORRIS, J. A., JOHNSON, K. M., RIFKLND, D. & UTZ, J. P. (1961). Respiratory syncytial virus. III. Production of illness and clinical observations in adult volunteers. Journal of the American Medical Association 176, 657-663.
136. KRUGMAN, S. (1983). The conquest of measles and rubella. Natural History 92, 16-20.
137. LANGE, B. (1926). Weitere Untersuchungen ueber die Bedeutung der Staubinfektion bei der Tuberkulose. Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten 106, 1-27.
138. LAURELL, G., LOEFSTROEM, G., MAGNUSSON, J. H. & OUCHTERLONY, O. (1949). Airborne infections. 2. A report on the methods. Acta Medica Scandinavica 134, 189-204.
139. LEDERBERG, J. (1988). Medical science, infectious disease, and the unity of humankind. Journal of the American Medical Association 260, 684-685.
140. LENSKI, R. E. & MAY, R. M. (1994). The evolution of virulence in parasites and pathogens: reconciliation between two competing hypotheses. Journal of Theoretical Biology 169, 253-265.
141. LEVIX, S. (1983). Some approaches to modelling of coevolutionary interactions. In Coevolution (ed. M. Nitecki), pp. 21-65. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
142. LEVIN, S. & PIMENTEL, D. (1981). Selection of intermediate rates of increase in parasite-host systems. American Naturalist 117, 308-15.
143. LEWONTIN, R. C. (1970). The units of selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1, 1-18.
144. LIU, C. (1977). Nonbacterial pneumonia. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 283-294. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
145. LIU, C. (1983). Bronchitis and bronchiolitis. In Infectious Diseases. 3rd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 316-322. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, Maryland.
146. LOOSLI, C. G., LEMON, H. M., ROBERTSON, O. H. & APPEL, E. (1943). Experimental air-borne influenza infection. I. Influence of humidity on survival of virus in air. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 53, 205-206.
147. LOZOVSKAIA, L. S. (1959). Destructive action of light on measles and influenza viruses during desiccation and subsequent storage in vacuo. Joprosy Virusologii 4, 56-59.
148. LUTTINGER, P. (1916). The epidemiology of pertussis. American Journal of Diseases of Children 12, 290-315.
149. MACCALLUM, F. O. & MCDONALD, J. R. (1957). Survival of variola virus in raw cotton. Bulletin of the WHO 16, 247-254.
150. MANCHESTER, K. (1984). Tuberculosis and leprosy in antiquity: an interpretation. Medical History 28, 162-173.
151. MANDELL, G. L., DOUGLAS, R. G. & BENNETT, J. E. (eds.) (1990). Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
152. MARCY, S. M. & KIBRICK, S. (1977a). Measles. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 691-700. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
153. MARCY, S. M. & KIBRICK, S. (1977b). Mumps. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P.D. Hoeprich), pp. 621-627. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
154. MARCY, S. M. & KIBRICK, S. (1977c). Rubella. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 701-71. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
155. MARCY, S. M. & KIBRICK, S. (1977d). Varicella and herpes zoster. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 744-758. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
156. MAY, R. M. & ANDERSON, R. M. (1983). Epidemiology and genetics in the coevolution of parasites and hosts. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 219, 281-313.
157. MELNICK, J. L. (1984). Structure and classification of viruses. In Textbook of Human Virology (ed. R. B. Belshe). pp. 1-28. PSG, Littleton, Massachusetts.
158. MELZER, M., EYKYN, S. J., GRANSDEN, W. R. & CHINN, S. (2003). Is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus more virulent than methicillin-susceptible 5. aureus? A comparative cohort study of British patients with nosocomial infection and bacteremia. Clinical Infectious Diseases 37, 1453-1460.
159. MHALU, F. S., MMARI, P. W. & IJUMBA,. J. (1979). Rapid emergence of El Tor Vibrio cholerae resistant to antimicrobial agents during first 6 months of 4th cholera epidemic in Tanzania. Lancet i, 345-347.
160. MILLER, W. S. & ARTENSTEIN, M. S. (1967). Aerosol stability of three acute respiratory disease viruses. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 125, 222-227.
161. MITCHISON, D. A. (1992). Understanding the chemotherapy of tuberculosis-current problems. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 29, 477-493.
162. MITSCHERLICH, E. & MARTH, E. H. (1984). Microbial Survival in the Environment. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
163. MORSE, S. I. (1977). Whooping Cough. In Infectious Diseases, 2nd Edn (ed. P. D. Hoeprich), pp. 277-28. Harper & Row, Hagerstown, MD.
164. MORSE, S. S. (1991). Emerging viruses: defining the rules for viral traffic. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 34, 387-409.
165. MORTIMER, E. A., LIPSITZ, P. J., WOLINSKY, E., BONZAGA, A. J. & RAMMELKAMP, D. H. (1962). Transmission of staphylococci between newborns. American Journal of Diseases of Children 104, 289-95.
166. MOXON, E. R. (1990). Haemophilus influenzae. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 3rd Edn (eds. G. E. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1722-1729. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
167. MUFSON, M. A. (1990). Streptococcus pneumoniae. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1539-1550. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
168. MULDER, J. (1960). Broad aspects of the problem of human virulence in influenza viruses. In Virus Virulence and Pathogenesis (eds. G. E. W. Wolstenholme and C. M. O'Connor), pp. 43-57. Little, Brown & Company, Boston.
169. MURPHY, T. V., OSTERHOLM, M. T., PIERSON, L. M., WHITE, K. E., BREEDLOVE, J. A., SEIBERT, G. B., KURITSKY, J. N. & GRANOFF, D. M. (1987). Prospective surveillance of Haemophilus influenza type b disease in Dallas County, Texas, and in Minnesota. Pediatrics 79, 173-180.
170. MYERS, R. H. (1990). Classical and Modern Regression with Applications. PWS-KENT Publishing Company, Boston.
171. MYERS, J. H. & ROTHMAN, E. E. (1995). Virulence and transmission of infectious diseases in humans and insects: evolutionary and demographic patterns. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10, 194-198.
172. NARDELL, E. A. (1990). Dodging droplet nuclei. Reducing the probability of nosocomial tuberculosis transmission in the AIDS era. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 142, 501-503.
173. NATHANSON, N. (1990). Epidemiology. In Fields Virology, 2nd Edn (eds. B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe), pp. 267-291. Raven Press, New York.
174. NEFF, J. M. (1990). Variola (smallpox) and monkeypox viruses. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1137-1138. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
175. NEU, H. C. (1992). The crisis in antibiotic resistance. Science 257, 1064-1073.
176. NIAID (1989). Tuberculosis (backgrounder of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases). Office of Communications, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health; Public Health Sendee, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland.
177. NOWAK, M. A. & MAY, R. M. (1994). Superinfection and the evolution of parasite virulence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 255, 81-89.
178. OCKLITZ, H. W. & MILLECK, H. (1967). Die Überlebenszeit von Pertussisbakterien ausserhalb des Kranken. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene Abt 1 Orig 203, 79-91.
179. OTIS, E. O. (1909). The Great White Plague. Crowell, Yew York.
180. OUCHTERLONY, O. (1949). Air-borne infections. 3. Infection and spreading of infection in diphtheria with special reference to isoladon wards. Acta Medica Scandinavica 134, 296-309.
181. PAGEL, M. D. (1992). A method for the analysis of comparative data. Journal of Theoretical Biology 156, 431-442.
182. PAPPENHEIMER, A. M. & GILL, D. M. (1972). Inhibition of protein synthesis by activated diphtheria toxin. In Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic action on protein biosynthesis and membranes (eds. E. Munoz, F. Garcia-ferrandiz and D. Vazquez), pp. 134-149. Elvesier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
183. PAPPENHEIMER, A. M. & GILL, D. M. (1973). Diphtheria. Science 182, 353-358.
184. PARKER, E. R. & MACNEAL, W. J. (1944). Persistence of influenza virus on the human hand. Journal of Laboratory Clinical Medicine 29, 121-126.
185. PARKER, E. R., DUNHAMM, W. B. & MACNEAL, W. J. (1944). Resistance of the Melbourne strain of influenza virus to desiccation. Journal of Laboratory Clinical Medicine 29, 37-42.
186. PARKINSON, A. J., MUCHMORE, H. G., SCOTT, E. N. & SCOTT, L. V. (1983). Survival of human parainfluenza viruses in the south polar environment. Applied Environmental Microbiology 46, 901-905.
187. PAVILLARD, R., HARVEY, K., DOUGLAS, D., HEWSTONE, A., ANDREW, J., COLLOPY, B., ASCHE, V., CARSON, P., DAVIDSON, A.,GILBERT, G., SPICER, J. & TOSOLINI, F. (1982). Epidemic of hospital-acquired infection due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in major Victorian hospitals. Medical Journal of Australia 1, 451-454.
188. PAYNE, C. C. (1988). Pathogens for the control of insects: where next? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 318, 183-201.
189. PEARSON, M. E., JEREB, J. A., FRIEDEN, T. R., CRAWFORD, J. T., DAVIS, B. J., DOOLEY, S. W. & JARVIS, W. R. (1992). Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a risk to patients and health care workers. Annals of Internal Medicine 117, 191-196.
190. PEARSON, G. S. & DANDO, M. R. (2003). Maximizing the benefits of the inter review conference process: II. Security & oversight of pathogenic microorganisms & toxins. Briefing Paper No. 7 (Second Series), Dept. of Peace Studies, University of Bradford. UK.
191. PINNER, R. W., GELLIN, B. G., BIBB, W. F., BAKER, C. N., WEAVER, R., HUNTER, S. B., WATERMAN, S. H., MOCCA, L. F., FRASCH, C. E. & BROOME, C. V. (1991). Meningococcal disease in the United States - 1986. Journal of Infectious Diseases 164, 368-374.
192. PREBLUD, S. R. (1981). Age-specific risks of varicella complications. Pediatrics 68, 14-17.
193. PURVIS, A. & RAMBAUT, A. (1995). Comparative analysis by independent contrasts (CAIC): an Apple Macintosh application for analysing comparative data. Computer Applications in the Biosciences 11, 247-251.
194. RAWLS, W. E. (1972). Virology and epidemiology of rubella virus. International Opthamology Clinics 12, 21-66.
195. RECHSTEINER, J. & WINKLER, K. C. (1969). Inactivation of respiratory syncytial virus in aerosol. Journal of General Virology 5, 405-410.
196. REED, S. E. (1975). An investigation of the possible transmission of rhinovirtis colds through indirect contact. Journal of Hygiene 75, 249-258.
197. RICHMAN, D. D. (1982). Orthomyxoviruses and paramyxoviruses. In Microbiology (eds. A. E. Braude, C. E. Davis and J. Fierer). pp. 569-584. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
198. RILEY, R. L. (1982). Disease transmission and contagion control. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 125, 16-19.
199. ROBERTS, R. B. (1985). Streptococcus pneumoniae. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 3rd Edn (eds. G. L. Mandell, R. G. Douglas and J. E. Bennett), pp. 1142-1152. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
200. ROWE, B. & THRELFALL, E. J. (1984). Drug resistance in gram-negative aerobic bacilli. British Medical Bulletin 40, 68-76.
201. SAUNDERS, J. R. (1984). Genetics and evolution of antibiotic resistance. British Medical Bulletin 40, 54-60.
202. SCHAFFER, F. L., SOERGEL, M. E. & STRAUBE, D. C. (1976). Survival of airborne influenza virus: effects of propagating host, relative humidity, and composition of spray fluids. Archives of Virology 51, 263-273.
203. SCHMIDT, N. J. (1974). Varicella-zoster virus. In Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 2nd Edn (eds. E. H. Lennette, E. H. Spaulding and J. P. Truant), pp. 773-781. .American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
204. SCHUMAN, L. M. & DOULL, J. A. (1940). Diphtheria infection and morbidity in Cleveland, 1937-1939. American Journal of Public Health 30 (Supplement), 16-24.
205. SHAPIRO, M. (1984). Host tissues and metabolic products as ultraviolet screens for the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) nucleopolyhedrosis virus. Environmental Entomology 13, 1131-1134.
206. SHAPIRO, M., ROBERTSON, J. L., INJAC, M. G., KATAGARI, K. & BELL, R. A. (1984). Comparative infectivities of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) nucleopolyhedrosis virus isolates from North America, Europe, and Asia. Journal of Economic Entomology 77, 153-156.
207. SHAPIRO, M., LYNN, D. E. & DOUGHERTY, E. M. (1992). More virulent biotype isolated from wild-type suits. United States Patent #5, 132, 220. Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
208. SHERIDAN, J. J. & MCDOWELL, D. A. (1998). Factors affecting the emergence of pathogens on food. Meat Science 49, S151-S167.
209. SHIMANUKI, H. (1990). Bacteria. In Honey Bee Pests, Predators, and Diseases (eds. R. A. Morse and R. Nowogrodzki.), pp. 27-47. Comstock Publ. Ass., Ithaca, New York.
210. SMITH, C. R. (1942). Survival of tubercle bacilli in books. American Review of Tuberculosis 46, 549-559.
211. SOKAL, R. R. & ROHLF, F. J. (1981). Biometry, 2nd Edn. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.
212. SOPARKAR, M. B. (1917). The vitality of the tubercle bacillus outside the body. Indian Journal of Medical Research 4, 627-650.
213. SOUTHWICK, C. H. (1985). The human condition: economics and health. In Global Ecology (ed. C. H. Southwick), pp. 243-252. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
214. STARKE, J. R., JACOBS, R. F. & JEREB, J. (1992). Resurgence of tuberculosis in children. Journal of Pediatrics 120, 839-855.
215. STEBBINS, E. L. (1940). Diphtheria immunity and carrier surveys in New York State. American Journal of Public Health 30 (Supplement), 36-41.
216. STEPHENS, D. S., MOXON, E. R., ADAMS, J., ALTIZER, S., ANTOKOVICS, J., ARAL, S., BERKELMAN, R., BOND, E., BULL, J., CAUTHEN, G., et al. (1998). Emerging and reemerging infectious diseases: a multidisciplinary perspective. American Journal of the Medical Sciences 315, 64-75.
217. STUART HARRIS, C. H. (1961). Clinical characteristics. Twenty years of influenza epidemics. American Review of Respiratory Diseases 83, 54-67.
218. SUDRE, P., TEN DAM, G. & KOCHI, A. (1992). Tuberculosis - a global overview of the situation today. Bulletin of the WHO 70, 149-159.
219. THOMAS, J. C. (1941). Infection from dust. Lancet i, 433-434.
220. THOMPSON, R. L., CABEZUDO, I. & WENZEL, R. P. (1982). Epidemiology of nosocomial infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Annals of Internal Medicine 97, 309-317.
221. TINSLEY, T. W. & ENTWISTLE, P. F. (1974). The use of pathogens in the control of insect pests. In Biology in pest and disease control (eds. D. Pricejones and M. E. Solomon), pp. 115-129. The 13th symposium of the British Ecological Society, Oxford, 4-7. January 1972. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
222. TURK, D. C. & MAY, J. R. (1967). Haemophilus Influenzae. English Universities Press, London.
223. TWICHELL, D. C. (1905). The vitality of tubercle bacilli in sputum. Medical News 87, 642-647.
224. TYRRELL, D. A. J. (1992). A view from the common cold unit. Antiviral Research 18, 105-125.
225. US BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. (1975). Historical statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, vol 1. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
226. US BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. (1991). Statistical abstract of the United States: 1991, 111th Edn. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
227. WALLACE, B. (1989). Can 'stepping stones' form stairways? American Naturalist 133, 578-579.
228. WALTHER, B. A. (1993). Selection for virulence and resistance to ultraviolet radiation in Lymantria dispar nuclear polyhedrosis virus. B. A. thesis, Amherst College, Massachusetts.
229. WEISS, R. (1989). Deadly RSV may fall to improved vaccines. Science News 136, 38.
230. WELLS, W. F. & BROWN, H. W. (1936). Recovery of influenza virus suspended in air and its destruction by ultraviolet radiation. American Journal of Hygiene 24, 407-413.
231. WELLS, W. F. & STONE, W. R. (1934). On airborne infection. Study III. Viability of droplet nuclei infection. American Journal of Hygiene 20, 619-627.
232. WHO (1969). Respiratory viruses: report of a WHO scientific group. WHO Technical Report Series 408.
233. WILFERT, C. M. (1988a). Bordetella. In Zinsser Microbiology, 19th Edn (eds. W. K. Joklik, H. P. Willett, D. B. Amos and C. M. Wilfert), pp. 402-413. Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, Connecticut.
234. WILFERT, C. M. (1988b). Paramyxoviruses. In Zinsser Microbiology. 19th Edn (eds. W. K. Joklik, H. P. Willett, D. B. Amos and C. M. Wilfert), pp. 826-834. Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, Connecticut.
235. WILLIAMS, S. G. & KAUFFMAN, C. A. (1978). Survival of Streptococcus pneumomae in sputum of patients with pneumonia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 7, 3-5.
236. WITT, D. J. & STAIRS, G. R. (1975). The effects of ultraviolet irradiation on a baculovirus infecting Galleria mellonella. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 26, 321-327.
237. WITT, D. J. & HINK, W. F. (1979). Selection of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus for resistance to inactivation by near ultraviolet, far ultraviolet, and thermal radiation. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 33, 222-232.
238. WOLFF, H. L. & CROON, J. J. A. B. (1968). The survival of smallpox virus (Variola minor) in natural circumstances. Bulletin of the WHO 38, 492-493.
239. WOLLNSKY, E. (1992). Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases 15, 1-12.
240. WOLINSKY, E., LIPSITZ, P. J., MORTIMER, E. A. & RAMMELKAMP, C. H. (1960). Acquisition of staphylococci by newborns. Direct versus indirect transmission. Lancet ii, 620-622.
241. WOLINSKY, J. S. & SERVER, A. C. (1985). Mumps Virus. In Fields Virology (eds. B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe), pp. 1255-1284. Raven Press, New York.
242. WRIGHT, D. N., BAILEY, G. D. & GOLDBERG, L. J. (1969). Effect of temperature on survival of airborne Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Journal of Bacteriology Journal of bacteriology 99, 491-495.
243. WRIGHT, D. N., BAILEY, G. D. & HATCH, M. T. (1968). Role of relative humidity in the survival of airborne Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Journal of Bacteriology 96, 970-974.
244. WRIGHT, P. F. (1984). Parainfluenza viruses. In Textbook of human virology (eds. R. B. Belshe), pp. 299-309. PSG Publishing Company, Littleton, Massachusetts.