Sex change and the popular press: Historical notes on transsexuality in the United States, 1930-1955

GLQ

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 159-187

  Meyerowitz, Joanne ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 9544246484     PISSN: 10642684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10642684-4-2-159     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. "Christine and the News," Newsweek, 15 December 1952, 64.
2. On "passing," see Jonathan Katz, ed., Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. (New York: Avon, 1976), 317-422;
3. San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, "'She Even Chewed Tobacco': A Pictorial Narrative of Passing Women in America," in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Bauml Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (New York: New American Library, 1989), 183-94;
4. Louis Sullivan, From Female to Male: The Life of Jack Bee Garland (Boston: Alyson, 1990).
5. I use the term intersex as it is generally used today to refer to conditions of sexual ambiguity of the gonads, reproductive system, and/or genitalia. Intersex encompasses the older categories of hermaphroditism, in which an individual has gonads of both sexes, and pseudohermaphroditism, in which the gonads of one sex coexist with various forms of genital ambiguity. In using the word transvestite, I am adopting the term chosen by European sexologists, especially Magnus Hirschfeld, who recommended sex change surgery for some people with cross-gender identification. Through the mid-twentieth century the term appeared frequently in medical and popular literature to describe nonintersexed people who expressed desires for sex change. I do not intend to suggest that these "transvestites" were only cross-dressers lacking an authentic identification with the so-called other sex. My point is that cross-gender identification and the desire for bodily alteration through hormones and surgery predate the English term transsexual.
6. Bernice L. Hausman, Changing Sex: Transsexualism, Technology, and the Idea of Gender (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995), 119.
7. See also Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, Cross Dressing, Sex, and Gender (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), chap. 11,
8. Gordene Olga MacKenzie, Transgender Nation (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1994), chap. 2. Hausman, the Bulloughs, and MacKenzie all follow this general chronology. They acknowledge individual examples of earlier surgery but neglect the more complicated history of sex change before 1949.
9. See Richard Green, "Mythological, Historical, and Cross-Cultural Aspects of Transsexualism," in Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment, ed. Richard Green and John Money (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 13-22;
10. Vern L. Bullough, "Transsexualism in History," Archives of Sexual Behavior 4 (1975): 561-71;
11. Leslie Feinberg, Transgender Warriors: Making History from Joan of Arc to RuPaul (Boston: Beacon, 1996).
12. For recent examples in U.S. history, see Lisa Duggan, "The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 18 (1993): 791-814;
13. Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline Davis, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold: The History of a Lesbian Community (New York: Routledge, 1993);
14. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994);
15. Katie Gilmartin, "'We Weren't Bar People': Middle-Class Lesbian Identities and Cultural Spaces," GLQ 3 (1996): 1-51.
16. Teresa de Lauretis, The Practice of Love: Lesbian Sexuality and Perverse Desire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), xix.
17. For a recently compiled introduction to reader-response criticism, see Andrew Bennet, ed., Readers and Reading (New York: Longmans, 1995).
18. On readers and popular culture, see, for example, Janice Radway, Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984),
19. John Fiske, Understanding Popular Culture (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989).
20. Eugen Steinach, Sex and Life: Forty Years of Biological and Medical Experiments (New York: Viking, 1940), 66.
21. Steinach also implied that he had discovered a hormonal basis for homosexual behavior. One of his later publications included reports of "cures" of homosexual men who were castrated and then implanted with the surgically excised undescended testicles of heterosexual men. On Steinach, see also Harry Benjamin, "Eugen Steinach, 1861-1944: A Life of Research," Scientific Monthly 61 (1945): 427-42;
22. Sexual Anomalies and Perversions: A Summary of the Work of the Late Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, Compiled as a Humble Memorial by His Pupils (London: Francis Aldor, 1944 [1938]), 172-77.
23. For some precursors to Steinach, see John Money, "The Genealogical Descent of Sexual Psychoneuroendocrinology from Sex and Health Theory: The Eighteenth to the Twentieth Centuries," Psychoneuroendocrinology 8 (1983): 391-93.
24. Earl Lind, Autobiography of an Androgyne (New York: Medico-Legal Journal, 1918), 196. A note on pronouns: I use masculine pronouns when someone self-presented as male; I use feminine pronouns when someone self-presented as female. In quotations, I have not altered the pronouns used in the original texts.
25. J. Allen Gilbert, "Homo-Sexuality and Its Treatment," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 52 (October 1920): 297-322, quotation on 321.
26. In Gilberts article, Hart is referred to as "H." Jonathan Katz's sleuthing uncovered Hart's identity. See Katz, Gay American History, 419.
27. Max Marcuse, "Ein Fall von Geschlechtsumwandlungstrieb," Zeitschrift für Psychotherapie und Medizinische Psychologie 6 (1916): 176-93.
28. Harry Benjamin, The Transsexual Phenomenon (New York: Julian Press, 1966), 252;
29. Niels Hoyer, ed., Man into Woman: An Authentic Record of a Change of Sex (New York: Dutton, 1933), xi.
30. Sexual Anomalies and Perversions, 179, 218.
31. Magnus Hirschfeld, Transvestites: The Erotic Drive to Cross Dress (New York: Prometheus Books, 1991 [1910]), 235.
32. Felix Abraham, "Genitalumwandlung an zwei männlichen Transvestiten," Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft und Sexualpolitik 18 (10 September 1931): 223-26, quotation on 223.
33. Hoyer, Man into Woman, 284.
34. On Elbe's death and the involvement of Hirschfeld and the Institute, see Preben Hertoft and Teit Ritzau, Paradiset er ikke til salg: Trangen til at vaere begge koen (Paradise is not for sale: the desire to be both sexes) (Denmark: Lindhardt og Ringhof, 1984), 82-83.
35. For another account of male-to-female surgery in Germany in 1931, see the articles on Herta Wind: "Legal Fight over Sex Change Book," Daily Telegram, 5 January 1955,
36. in ONE/International Gay and Lesbian Archives (ONE/IGLA), University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif., file: Changelings;
37. "His Two Sons Began to Call Him 'Auntie,'" n.d. [1950s], Christine Jorgensen Scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. (KI), n.p.
38. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 14 December 1947, correspondence file: Daniel Bass, KI.
39. Hoyer, Man into Woman, 178.
40. The claim to hermaphroditism is hard to believe. By the late 1930s, the reigning expert in the field, Hugh Hampton Young, found only twenty medically confirmed cases of hermaphroditisin; not one of them had, as the story of Lili Elbe suggested, two ovaries in the pelvis and two testes in the scrotum. See Hugh Hampton Young, Genital Abnormalities, Hermaphroditism and Related Adrenal Diseases (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1937), 200-201.
41. Hugh Hampton Young, Genital Abnormalities, Hermaphroditism and Related Adrenal Diseases Ibid., xi-xii.
42. "A Man Becomes a Woman," Sexology, December 1933, 250-54, quotations on 252, 253-54.
43. "When Science Changed a Man into a Woman!" n.d. [ca. 1934], "Order Book" scrapbook, box 1/1 scrapbooks, Virginia Prince Collection, Special Collections, Oviatt Library, California State University at Northridge, Northridge, Calif. (CSUN), n.p.
44. In the sensational vein, Sexology often emphasized the stranger side of the science of sex. It is no coincidence that Hugo Gernsback, the founder, editor, and publisher of Sexology, also published the first pulp science-fiction magazines. Thanks to Susan Stryker for pointing out this connection. On Gernsback, see Mark Siegel, Hugo Gernsback, Father of Modern Science Fiction (San Bernardino: Borgo, 1988).
45. "Man in Woman's Body," Your Body, September 1937, 12-15, quotation on 15.
46. "Boy Prisoner Slowly Changing into a Girl," n.d. [ca. 1936], "Order Book" scrapbook, box 1/1 scrapbooks, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN, n.p.
47. "When Science Changed a Man into a Woman!" 2.
48. Gordon Kahn, "['Bad-Old'] Days of Newly-Made Man," New York Daily Mirror, n.d. [ca. 1936], "Order Book" scrapbook, box 1/1 scrapbooks, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN.
49. Gordon Kahn, "Boy Ex-Girl 'Corsetiere,'" New York Daily Mirror, n.d. [ca. 1936], in ibid.
50. "Former Girl Athlete Arrives, Now a Man," " New York Daily Mirror, in ibid.
51. Gordon Kahn, "Once Girl, He Talks of Loves," New York Daily Mirror, n.d. [ca. 1936],
52. Gordon Kahn, "Koubkov Met Love at Track," New York Daily Mirror, n.d. [ca. 1936], both in ibid.
53. See, for example, Brett Riley, "Are Sexual Changes Possible?" n.d. [late 1930s or 1940s], box 1/4 clippings, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN, n.p.
54. Joseph McCabe, Women Who Become Men: The Development of Unusual Variations, Including Hermaphrodites, Pseudo-Hermaphrodites, and Virgin Birth (Girard, Kans.: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1938), 29.
55. "Women into Men by Surgery?" Sexology, August 1936, 774-75, quotation on 775.
56. Jacob Hubler, "Science Turns Girl into Boy," Sexology, November 1934, 156-58, quotation on 158.
57. "Dissatisfaction with Sex," Sexology, August 1934, 810.
58. "Changing Sex," Sexology, December 1937, 265.
59. "They Want to Change Sexes," Sexology, September 1937, 32-35, quotation on 32.
60. They Want to Change Sexes," Sexology, 1937, 32-35 Ibid.
61. "Dissatisfaction with Sex," 810.
62. "Changing Sex," 265.
63. For articles, see "Woman into Man," Sexology, March 1944, 484-85,
64. David O. Cauldwell, "A Man Becomes a Woman," Sexology, September 1946, 73-79,
65. David O. Cauldwell, Sexology, and October 1946, 149-52.
66. For letters, see "Homosexuality," Sexology, November 1942, 390, 392;
67. "'Man into Woman'?" Sexology, August 1946, 59-60;
68. "Man into Woman," Sexology, December 1946, 312;
69. "Desire to Be of the Opposite Sex," Sexology, August 1948, 53.
70. Daniel Bass [pseud.], "Case History," n.d., TV-BNJ notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI, 7, 9.
71. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 2 November 1945, in ibid.
72. D. M. Olkon and Irene Case Sherman, "Eonism with Added Outstanding Psychopathic Features," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 99 (January-June 1944): 159-67, quotation on 166.
73. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 20 October 1945, TV-BNJ notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
74. "'Man' Asks Legal Right to Assume Woman Status," Los Angeles Examiner, 3 July 1941, TV Barbara Richards envelope, no. 82, diary room, KI.
75. Barbara Ann Richards, as told to Bart Lytton, "Nature Betrayed My Body," Sensation, November 1941, box 1/4 clippings, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN, 88.
76. "Young Bride Won't Leave Mate Who's Victim of Sex Change," Oakland Tribune, 4 July 1941, "Photo and Return" scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
77. "Prank by Mother Nature Turns Los Angeles Salesman into Woman," Los Angeles Times, 3 July 1941, TV Barbara Richards envelope, no. 82, diary room, KI;
78. Lorraine Wilcox Richards, "My Husband is a Woman," n.d. [ca. 1941], blue notebook, box 1/1 scrapbooks, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN, n.p.
79. Richards, "Nature Betrayed My Body," 88.
80. "Edward Changes Name to Barbara," Los Angeles Herald Express, 10 October 1941, TV Barbara Richards envelope, no. 82, diary room, KI.
81. Myron Weiss, "The Husband Who Changed into a Woman," Spot, January 1942, in ibid.
82. On Lauren Wilcox, see Louise Lawrence autobiography, large box, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI, 71-72; Louise Lawrence diary, 28 May, 2 June, 28 June 1944 in ibid.; Louise Lawrence, letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 21 September 1950, folder: Alfred C. Kinsey, in ibid. See also Karl M. Bowman and Bernice Engle, "Medicolegal Aspects of Transvestism," American Journal of Psychiatry 113 (January 1957): 587.
83. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 13 February 1948, TV-BNJ notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
84. "A.O.," letter to Barbara Richards, 30 May 1942, TV Barbara Richards envelope, no. 82, diary room, KI.
85. David O. Cauldwell, Questions and Answers on the Sex Life and Sexual Problems of Trans-Sexuals (Girard, Kans.: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1950), 5-6.
86. David O. Cauldwell, "Psychopathia Transexualis," Sexology, December 1949, 276, 278.
87. Jim Kepner, "Excavating Lesbian and Gay History," ONE/IGLA Bulletin 2 (spring/ summer 1996): 9.
88. Cauldwell, Questions and Answers, 13.
89. Cauldwell, Questions and Answers, Ibid., 24.
90. Gene St. Ledges, "Can Science Switch Sexes?" Whisper, January 1950, box 1/4 clippings, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN.
91. "Would Your Change Your Sex?" Glance, March 1950, box 1/1 scrapbooks, Virginia Prince Collection, CSUN.
92. Tom Buckley, "Transsexuality Expert, 90, Recalls 'Maverick' Career," New York Times, 11 January 1975, B1.
93. On Benjamin's career in the United States, see Harry Benjamin, "Reminiscences," Journal of Sex Research 6 (February 1970): 3-9.
94. "Medical Report on Lynn Barry (pseudonym)," 19 July 1948, TV-BNJ1 notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI, 2, 3.
95. Lynn Barry [pseud.], letter to Harry Benjamin, 19 May 1949, in ibid.
96. On the mayhem statute, see Robert Veit Sherwin, "The Legal Problem in Transvestism," American Journal of Psychotherapy 8 (April 1954): 243-44. Sherwin writes: "There is no law which specifically prohibits a doctor from performing this operation with the consent of the patient. Nevertheless, there is hardly a district attorney in the country who would not inform a doctor that it would be illegal for the doctor to perform such an operation. When asked for the proof of his statement, the District Attorney would point to the Mayhem Statute. Rarely has the law been used in such a ridiculous and unscientific fashion. . . . It was a king's device in days of yore to prevent his men from becoming useless as fighters in his army. . . . There seems to be little doubt that cutting off of the male genitalia would not be mayhem. . . . And yet, it is this statute which is cited as the reason why such an operation would be a crime on the part of the doctor." By all accounts, no surgeon engaged in sex reassignment was ever prosecuted under the mayhem statutes. More generally, surgeons hesitated to engage in sex change surgery for other reasons: they worried, for example, about their reputations in the medical community, and they also feared liability suits. By the late 1960s, doctors and lawyers had ceased using the mayhem statutes as an excuse to refuse sex reassignment surgery.
97. Harry Benjamin, letter to Lynn Barry, 31 May 1949, TV-BNJ1 notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
98. Harry Benjamin, letter to Edmund G. Brown, 22 November 1949, in ibid.
99. Alton Blakeslee, "Thousands Do Not Know True Sex," New York Daily News, 7 December 1952, C6.
100. Jack Geiger, "Sex Surgery Specialist Reports Hundreds of Boy-Girl Operations," n.d. [ca. 2 December 1952], Christine Jorgensen scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI, n.p.
101. "Doctor Tells of Five Sex Operations," New York Daily News, 18 December 1952, C4.
102. "The Great Transformation," Time, 15 December 1952, 59.
103. G.B. Lal, "MDs and Public to Eagerly Follow Christine's Life," New York Journal-American, 7 December 1952, 18L.
104. Louise Lawrence, letter to Harry Benjamin, 9 December 1952, TRNSV notebook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
105. Christine Jorgensen, "The Story of My Life," American Weekly, pt. 1, 15 February 1953, 5.
106. "How AW Got and Prepared Christine Story," Editor and Publisher, 28 March 1953, 62.
107. Jorgensen, "Story of My Life," pt. 1, 9.
108. The concept of a woman "trapped" in a male body is a modernized version of the older "female soul in a male body," which homosexual emancipationist Karl Ulrichs employed in the nineteenth century. Ulrichs used this phrase to describe homosexuality, which he associated with gender inversion, and in the popular culture the phrase continued to connote homosexuality into the mid-twentieth century. See Gert Hekma, "'A Female Soul in a Male Body': Sexual Inversion as Gender Inversion in Nineteenth-Century Sexology," in Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, ed. Gilbert Herdt (New York: Zone Books, 1996), 213-39.
109. Christine Jorgensen, "The Story of My Life," American Weekly, pt. 2, 22 February 1953, 4.
110. Christine Jorgensen, American Weekly, Ibid., 6;
111. Christine Jorgensen, "The Story of My Life," American Weekly, pt. 4, 8 March 1953, 8.
112. Jorgensen, "Story of My Life," pt. 4, 8.
113. Jorgensen, Story of My Life Ibid., 9.
114. Susan Stryker, "Transsexuality: The Postmodern Body and/as Technology," Exposure: The Journal of the Society for Photographic Education 30 (1995): 38-50.
115. Dallas Denny, "Black Telephones, White Refrigerators: Rethinking Christine Jorgensen," unpublished essay, 1995, 12-13.
116. "Christine Discounted as 100 Pct. Woman by Her Copenhagen Doctor," San Francisco Call-Bulletin, 18 February 1953, Christine Jorgensen scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
117. "AMA Studies Christine - Some U.S. Doctors Say She's Not a Woman Still," San Francisco Chronicle, 11 March 1953, Christine Jorgensen scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
118. Alvin Davis, "The Truth about 'Christine' Jorgensen," New York Post, pt. 1, 6 April 1953.
119. "The Case of Christine," Time, 20 April 1953, 82;
120. "Boy or Girl?" Newsweek, 4 May 1953, 91.
121. Christian Hamburger, Georg Stürup, and E. Dahl-Iversen, "Transvestism: Hormonal, Psychiatric, and Surgical Treatment," Journal of the American Medical Association 152 (May 1953): 391-96, quotation on 396.
122. Robert King, "Christine Jorgensen: Is She Still a Man?" Modern Romances, August 1953,
123. ONE/IGLA, file: Christine Jorgensen; "Sex-Change Fraud," Exclusive, February 1955, vertical file: Christine Jorgensen, KI.
124. Christine Jorgensen, Christine Jorgensen: A Personal Autobiography (New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1967), 207, 209.
125. "2000 in L.A. Greet Christine," Los Angeles Herald and Express, 7 May 1953, Christine Jorgensen scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
126. For a different interpretation of the media's treatment of Jorgensen, see David Harley Serlin, "Christine Jorgensen and the Cold War Closet," Radical History Review 62 (spring 1995): 137-65.
127. Louise Lawrence, letter to Harry Benjamin, 22 April 1953, TRNSV notebook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
128. Jorgensen, Christine Jorgensen, 189.
129. Jorgensen, Christine Jorgensen, Ibid., 217.
130. Christian Hamburger, "The Desire for Change of Sex as Shown by Personal Letters from 465 Men and Women," Acta Endocrinologica 14 (1953): 361-76, quotation on 363.
131. Davis, "The Truth about 'Christine' Jorgensen," pt. 4, 9 April 1953.
132. Jorgensen, "Story of My Life," pt. 1, 7.
133. I have discovered several such collections, which have proven invaluable in my research. In addition to Louise Lawrences scrapbook, see the various scrapbooks and clipping collections in the Virginia Prince Collection. Special thanks to Joseph Agnew for lending me the "Christine" scrapbook from Chicago in his private possession. On "The Obligatory Transsexual File," see Sandy Stone, "The Empire Strikes Back: A Posttranssexual Manifesto," in Body Guards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, ed. Julia Epstein and Kristina Straub (New York: Routledge, 1991), 280-304, quotation on 285.
134. R. E. L. Masters, Sex-Driven People: An Autobiographical Approach to the Problem of the Sex-Dominated Personality (Los Angeles: Sherbourne, 1966), 229-32.
135. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Alfred C. Kinsey, 8 December 1952, correspondence file: Daniel Bass, KI.
136. Daniel Bass [pseud.], letter to Harry Benjamin, 2 July 1954, TV-BNJ notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
137. Gerard Farber [pseud.], letter probably to Harry Benjamin [ca. March 1954], TV-BNJ2 notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
138. Louise Lawrence, letter to Harry Benjamin, 6 April 1953, TRNSV notebook, Louise Lawrence Collection, KI.
139. On ratios of MTFs and FTMs, see Ira B. Pauly, "Male Psychosexual Inversion: Transsexualism," Archives of General Psychiatry 13 (August 1965): 179. The ratios offered by various doctors in the 1950s and early 1960s ranged from 6:1 to 2:1. They generally reflect the numbers of MTFs and FTMs that doctors encountered in their practices. In general, the published ratios have declined over time, and some today now posit an equal number of FTMs and MTFs. In the 1950s, though, MTFs clearly predominated in the doctors' estimates, and some mid-century sexologists considered transvestism and transsexualism, like fetishism, largely, if not wholly, "male" conditions. Did a smaller proportion of transgendered FTMs go to doctors for surgical intervention? (Mid-century newspaper reports suggest that more FTM cross-dressers lived full-time as men without benefit of surgery or hormones.) Among the broader population of transgendered people, were there in fact more MTFs than FTMs? If so, why? These larger questions remain unanswered.
140. Hamburger, "The Desire for Change of Sex," 364.
141. For a lengthier discussion of the contemporary marking of transsexuality as male to female, see Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1992), chap. 4.
142. Benjamin, Transsexual Phenomenon, 245-46.
143. Mario Martino, with Harriet, Emergence: A Transsexual Autobiography (New York: Crown, 1977), 40.
144. Harry Benjamin, "Transvestism and Transsexualism," International Journal of Sexology 7 (August 1953): 13.
145. The accounts of surgery are drawn from the collected correspondence in the Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
146. Pauly, "Male Psychosexual Inversion," 179.
147. Molly Anderson [pseud.], letter to Harry Benjamin, 3 January 1955, TV-BNJ3 notebook, Harry Benjamin Collection, KI.
148. Jorgensen, Christine Jorgensen, 79.
149. See Regina Kunzel, "Pulp Fictions and Problem Girls: Reading and Rewriting Single Pregnancy in the Postwar United States," American Historical Review 100 (1995): 1465-87;
150. Duggan, "The Trials of Alice Mitchell";
151. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, "'Nous Autres': Reading, Passion, and the Creation of M. Carey Thomas," Journal of American History 79 (1992): 68-95.
152. Jennifer Terry, "Theorizing Deviant Historiography," Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 3 (summer 1991): 55-73, quotation on 56.