Who chooses experience? Examining the use of veteran staff by house freshmen

Polity

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 651-664

  Leal, David L ^a   Hess, Frederick M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^b AMERICAN ENTERPRISE INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 8744303563     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/POLv36n4ms3235407     Document Type: Review

References (82)

1. 'Freshman' and 'freshmen' are used for lack of a gender neutral word in the literature for those in their first term.
2. Harrison W. Fox and Susan W. Hammond, Congressional Staffs: The Invisible Force in American Lawmaking (New York: Free Press, 1977); Eliza Carney, "Business as Usual," National Journal (May 1, 1993): 1037-40.
3. Harrison W. Fox and Susan W. Hammond, Congressional Staffs: The Invisible Force in American Lawmaking (New York: Free Press, 1977); Eliza Carney, "Business as Usual," National Journal (May 1, 1993): 1037-40.
4. Carney, "Business as Usual," 1037-38.
5. Richard Hall, Participation in Congress (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).
6. This does not mean to suggest that no veteran legislators rely on experienced staffers, as some members clearly do, but simply makes the point that personal staff for them is only one of several available resources.
7. James L. Sundquist, The Decline and Resurgence of Congress (Washington, DC: Brookings Press, 1981), 372. He also noted that, "(The new-style freshman] came to the Congress with a sense of mission, even a mandate, to have an impact on the legislative process. He is impatient, for those who backed him expect legislative results. An upstart as a candidate ... he will be an upstart in the House or Senate, too. He has no habit of being deferential to the established and the powerful, and he will not be so in the Congress, either in committee or on the floor" (371).
8. Hanna Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
9. As Montoya demonstrates, many bills are written every session by African American and Latino members that are primarily aimed at such populations. Lisa Montoya, "Latino and African-American Legislative Activism in the U.S. House of Representatives, 1989-1992" (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University of St. Louis, 1995).
10. Graeme Browning, "He's Playing the Inside Game," National Journal (April 2, 1994): 780. Richardson is Hispanic, although his last name is sometimes a source of confusion.
11. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
12. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
13. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
14. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
15. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
16. Patricia Hurley, "Partisan Representation and the Failure of Realignment in the 1980s," American Journal of Political Science 33 (1989): 240-61; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Hispanic Representation in the U.S. Congress," Social Science Quarterly 65 (1984): 328-35; Rodney Hero and Caroline Tolbert, "Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?" American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995): 640-52; Carol Swain, Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Brinck Kerr and Will Miller, "Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997); 1066-71; Kenny J. Whitby, The Color of Representation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
17. Rodolfo de la Garza, "Chicano Elites and National Policymaking, 1977-1980: Passive or Active Representatives?" in Latinos and the Political System, ed. F. Chris Garcia (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988).
18. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
19. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
20. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
21. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
22. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
23. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
24. Arthur Levy and Susan Stoudinger, "Sources of Voting Cues for the Congressional Black Caucus," Journal of Black Studies 7 (1976): 29-46; Charles Henry, "Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics," American Politics Quarterly 5 (1977): 149-76; Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael Preston (New York: Longman Press, 1982); Charles Jones, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall: An Analysis of the Congressional Black Caucus' Voting Behavior, 1975-1980," Phylon 48 (1987): 26-37; Frederic Solop, "African-Americans Confront Apartheid," in Minority Group Influence: Agenda Setting, Formulation, and Public Policy, ed. Paula D. McClain (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Neil Pinney and George Serra, "The Congressional Black Caucus and Vote Cohesion: Placing the Caucus Within House Voting Patterns," Political Research Quarterly 52 (1999): 583-608; Robert Singh, The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
25. David Lublin, The Paradox of Representation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997);
26. David Canon, Race, Redistricting, and Representation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
27. Montoya, "Latino and African-American Legislative Activism."
28. Fox and Hammond, "Congressional Staff." Michael J. Malbin, Unelected Representatives: Congressional Staff and the future of Representative Government (New York: Basic Books, 1979).
29. Michael Pertschuk, Revolt Against Regulation: The Rise and Pause of the Consumer Movement (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1982).
30. Malbin, "Unelected Representatives."
31. Kenneth Kofmehl, Professional Staffs of Congress (Indianapolis, IN: Purdue Research Foundation, 1962).
32. Paul Rundquist, Judy Schneider, and Frederick Pauls, Congressional Staff: An Analysis of their Roles, Functions, and Impacts (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 1992); John Pontius, Paul Dwyer, and Faye Bullock, Legislative Branch Employment, 1960-1995 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1995).
33. Paul Rundquist, Judy Schneider, and Frederick Pauls, Congressional Staff: An Analysis of their Roles, Functions, and Impacts (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 1992); John Pontius, Paul Dwyer, and Faye Bullock, Legislative Branch Employment, 1960-1995 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1995).
34. Fox and Hammond, "Congressional Staffs."
35. Nelson Polsby, "Political Change and the Character of the Contemporary Congress," in The New American Political System, ed. Anthony King (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute Press, 1990): 42. Other observers have voiced concerns about how staff are hired, particularly with regard to the hap-hazard nature of the process, the lack of formal standards, and the reliance on an old-boy network. See Thomas Mann and Norman Ornstein, Renewing Congress: A First Report (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute Press and the Brookings Institution Press, 1992).
36. Nelson Polsby, "Political Change and the Character of the Contemporary Congress," in The New American Political System, ed. Anthony King (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute Press, 1990): 42. Other observers have voiced concerns about how staff are hired, particularly with regard to the hap-hazard nature of the process, the lack of formal standards, and the reliance on an old-boy network. See Thomas Mann and Norman Ornstein, Renewing Congress: A First Report (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute Press and the Brookings Institution Press, 1992).
37. Barbara Romzek and Jennifer Utter, "Congressional Legislative Staff: Political Professionals or Clerks?" American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997): 1251-79.
38. Christine DeGregorio, "Congressional Committee Staff as Policy Making Partners in the U.S. Congress," Congress and the Presidency 21 (1994): 49-66; Christine DeGregorio, "Patterns of Senior Staff Use in Congressional Committees," Polity 28 (1995): 261-75.
39. Christine DeGregorio, "Congressional Committee Staff as Policy Making Partners in the U.S. Congress," Congress and the Presidency 21 (1994): 49-66; Christine DeGregorio, "Patterns of Senior Staff Use in Congressional Committees," Polity 28 (1995): 261-75.
40. David W. Rohde, "Committee Reform in the House of Representatives and the Subcommittee Bill of Rights," in Changing Congress: The Committee System, ed. Norman J. Ornstein (Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 1974); Sundquist, "The Decline and Resurgence of Congress."
41. David W. Rohde, "Committee Reform in the House of Representatives and the Subcommittee Bill of Rights," in Changing Congress: The Committee System, ed. Norman J. Ornstein (Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 1974); Sundquist, "The Decline and Resurgence of Congress."
42. Robert Salisbury and Kenneth Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover and the Ties that Bind," American Political Science Review 75 (1981): 381-96; Robert Salisbury and Kenneth Shepsle, "U.S. Congressman as Enterprise," Legislative Studies Quarterly 6 (1981): 559-76. Until 1995, Congress exempted itself from most labor relations, equal opportunity, and occupational safety laws
43. Robert Salisbury and Kenneth Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover and the Ties that Bind," American Political Science Review 75 (1981): 381-96; Robert Salisbury and Kenneth Shepsle, "U.S. Congressman as Enterprise," Legislative Studies Quarterly 6 (1981): 559-76. Until 1995, Congress exempted itself from most labor relations, equal opportunity, and occupational safety laws
44. Kenneth Shepsle, "The Changing Textbook Congress," in Can the Government Govern? ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Press, 1989): 242. Their use in this capacity has been discussed by Richard Fenno in Home Styles: House Members in their Districts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978).
45. Kenneth Shepsle, "The Changing Textbook Congress," in Can the Government Govern? ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Press, 1989): 242. Their use in this capacity has been discussed by Richard Fenno in Home Styles: House Members in their Districts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978).
46. Norman Ornstein, Thomas Mann, and Michael Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress 1997-1998 (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1998), 129.
47. Ornstein, Mann, and Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 129.
48. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover." Burdett Loomis, "The Congressional Office as a Small (?) Business: New Members Set Up Shop," Publius 9 (1979): 35-55.
49. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover." Burdett Loomis, "The Congressional Office as a Small (?) Business: New Members Set Up Shop," Publius 9 (1979): 35-55.
50. Loomis, "The Congressional Office," 48. Mary P. Donnelly, "Personal Staffing: The Case of Freshman Members."
51. Loomis, "The Congressional Office," 48. Mary P. Donnelly, "Personal Staffing: The Case of Freshman Members."
52. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 387.
53. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 388.
54. David T. Canon, Race, Redistricting, and Representation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
55. Canon, Race, Redistricting, and Representation, 208. He also noted that members who emphasize commonality rather than difference were more likely to have "a multiracial staff that 'looks like the district,'" (208).
56. Ethel Klein, "The Gender Gap: Different Issues, Different Answers," The Brookings Review 3 (1985): 33-37; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Carol Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984); Elizabeth Adell Cook and Clyde Wilcox, "Feminism and the Gender Gap: A Second Look," Journal of Politics 53 (1991): 1111-22.
57. Ethel Klein, "The Gender Gap: Different Issues, Different Answers," The Brookings Review 3 (1985): 33-37; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Carol Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984); Elizabeth Adell Cook and Clyde Wilcox, "Feminism and the Gender Gap: A Second Look," Journal of Politics 53 (1991): 1111-22.
58. Ethel Klein, "The Gender Gap: Different Issues, Different Answers," The Brookings Review 3 (1985): 33-37; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Carol Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984); Elizabeth Adell Cook and Clyde Wilcox, "Feminism and the Gender Gap: A Second Look," Journal of Politics 53 (1991): 1111-22.
59. Ethel Klein, "The Gender Gap: Different Issues, Different Answers," The Brookings Review 3 (1985): 33-37; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Carol Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984); Elizabeth Adell Cook and Clyde Wilcox, "Feminism and the Gender Gap: A Second Look," Journal of Politics 53 (1991): 1111-22.
60. Irene Diamond, Sex Roles in the State House (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Sue Thomas and Susan Welch, "The Impact of Gender on Activities and Priorities of State Legislators," Western Political Quarterly 44 (1991): 445-56; Lyn Kathlene, "Alternative Views of Crime: Legislative Policymaking in Gendered Terms," Journal of Politics 57 (1995): 696-723.
61. Irene Diamond, Sex Roles in the State House (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Sue Thomas and Susan Welch, "The Impact of Gender on Activities and Priorities of State Legislators," Western Political Quarterly 44 (1991): 445-56; Lyn Kathlene, "Alternative Views of Crime: Legislative Policymaking in Gendered Terms," Journal of Politics 57 (1995): 696-723.
62. Irene Diamond, Sex Roles in the State House (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Sue Thomas and Susan Welch, "The Impact of Gender on Activities and Priorities of State Legislators," Western Political Quarterly 44 (1991): 445-56; Lyn Kathlene, "Alternative Views of Crime: Legislative Policymaking in Gendered Terms," Journal of Politics 57 (1995): 696-723.
63. Alternatively, it may be that big winners are more likely to have been recruited and supported by their national party apparatus. Consequently, they may have relationships not available to other freshmen. This would permit such winners to rely upon these contacts, rather than upon veteran staffers, to help them find their way during their first term.
64. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 385.
65. David Mayhew, Congress: The Electoral Connection (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 84.
66. Fox and Hammond, "Congressional Staffs."
67. As listed in the first directory to detail the staff of the new Congress.
68. Salisbury and Shepsle noted that CSD listing were "not without their inconsistencies and occasional lapses," but that "a body of data routinely collected in the same format on an annual basis for nearly two decades is not without its advantages for the questions we wish to pursue." Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 385-86.
69. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 386.
70. For any given staff member in any given Congress, one could examine previous congressional directories until one was found that did not list the staffer. This might provide a rough measure of staff tenure, but the benefit could be minimal because some of the most experienced staffers move in and out of the Hill, the executive branch, and lobby groups.
71. Reports filed with the Clerk of the House by committees and personal offices do provide some staff information, but this is much less accessible to researchers than the CSDs and much more time consuming to use.
72. Swain, "Black Faces, Black Interests," 105. Swain also noted that representative Mickey Leland "had a similar staffing pattern in a district of similar racial diversity."
73. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover," 388.
74. This person often has the title of Administrative Assistant. He or she is not included in the variable for Washington staff.
75. Canon, Race, Redistricting, and Representation, 209.
76. The 104th Congress dummy variable is insignificant in the overall model.
77. Gender and freshmen class size.
78. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover." Salisbury and Shepsle, "U.S. Congressman as Enterprise."
79. Salisbury and Shepsle, "Congressional Staff Turnover." Salisbury and Shepsle, "U.S. Congressman as Enterprise."
80. Loomis, "The Congressional Office."
81. As discussed previously, one notable example is Canon, Race, Redistricting, and Representation.
82. We would ideally like to know the race of the pool of veteran staffers, but such data would be very difficult to collect. We therefore cannot conclusively test whether minority members hired fewer experienced staffers because of their desire to hire minority staffers, because we do not know how many or how few experienced minority staffers are available for employment by freshmen staffs.