Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy

English Historical Review

Volumn 115, Issue 462, 2000, Pages 570-606

  Hewitson, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 85190546187     PISSN: 00138266     EISSN: 14774534     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/115.462.570     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Cited in F. Fischer, 'Das Bild Frankreichs in Deutschland in den Jahren vor dem ersten Weltkrieg', Revued'Allemagne, iv (1972), 516
2. id., 'The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany and the Outbreak of the First World War', in G. Schollgen (ed.), Escape into War (Oxford, 1990), p. 26.
3. T. T. F. A. v. Bethmann Hollweg, Reflections on the World War (London, 1920), p. 163: a translation of Betrachtungen zum Weltkrieg (2 vols., Berlin, 1919-21).
4. J. W. Langdon, July 1914: The Long Debate, 1918-1990 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 66-174.
5. The phrase was used by Hans Delbriick, editor of the Preufßschejahrbucher, cited in L. Dehio, Dcutschland unddie Weltpolitik im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt a.M., 1961), p. 67.
6. N. Ferguson, 'Germany and the Origins of the First World War: New Perspectives', Historical Journal, xxxv (1992), 725-51, and G. Schollgen (ed.), Escape into War, pp. 1-17.
7. K. Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor (New Haven, 1972), pp. 178, 229.
8. F. Fischer, War of Illusions (London, 1975), p. 461.
9. K. Hildebrand, Das vergangene Reich: Deutsche Aufienpolitik von Bismarck bis Hitler, 1871-194$ (Stuttgart, 1995), is a recent example of this tendency.
10. G. Schollgen, Imperialismus und Gleichgewicht: Deutschland, England und die orientalische Frage, 1871 1914 (Munich, 1984)
11. A. Hillgruber, Germany and the Two World Wars (Cambridge, Mass., 1981)
12. Deutsche Grossmacht- und Weltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Diisseldorf, 1977)
13. J. Lowe, The Great Powers, Imperialism and the German Problem, 1865 192$ (London, 1994)
14. M. Rauh, 'Die "deutsche Frage"vor 1914: Weltmachtstreben und Obrigkeitsstaat?', in J. Becker and A. Hillgruber (ed.), Die Deutsche Frage im ip. und20. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1983), pp. 109 66.
15. K. Wilson (ed.), Decisions for War, 1914 (London, 1995), the last in a long line of such books, is excellent, but needs to be read in conjunction with recent comprehensive studies such as W. J. Mommsen, Grossmachtstellung und Weltpolitik, 1870-1914 (Frankfurt a.M., 1993).
16. J. Retallack, 'Wilhelmine Germany', in G. Martel (ed.), Modem Germany Reconsidered, 1870 1945 (London, 1992), pp. 33-53, for a revisionist perspective on these fronts.
17. F. Fischer, World Power or Decline (New York, 1974)
18. V. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (London, 1973)
19. H.-U. Wehler, The German Empire, 1871-1918 (Oxford, 1985)
20. I. Geiss, German Foreign Policy, 1871 1914 (London, 1976)
21. D. Kaiser, 'Germany and the Origins of die First World War', Journal of Modern History, lv (1983), 441 74.
22. Fischer, War of Illusions, devotes the whole of Part I to the domestic 'foundations of Wilhelmine Germany'.
23. W. J. Mommsen, 'The Causes and Objectives of German Imperialism before 1914', in id., Imperial Germany, 1867 1918 (London, 1995), pp. 75-100
24. R. Chickering, We Men Who Feel Most German (London, 1984)
25. S. Forster, Der doppelte Militarisms (Stuttgart, 1985); J. Dulffer and K. Holl (ed.), Bereitzum Krieg (Gottingen, 1986).
26. P. M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London, 1988), pp. 269-82
27. id., The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, i860 1914 (London, 1980), pp. 291 320
28. I. Geiss, Derlange Weg in die Katastrophe (Munich, 1990), pp. 54,116,123
29. id., The Question of German Unification, 1806-1996 (London, 1997), pp. 51-65.
30. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 271-3.
31. A. Hillgruber, Germany and the Two World Wars (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), pp. 1-21
32. K. Hildebrand, German Foreign Policy from Bismarck to Hitler (London, 1989), pp. 64-84.
33. G. Schbllgen (ed.), Escape into War?
34. id., Das Zeitalter des Imperialisms (2nd edn., Munich, 1991)
35. K. Hildebrand, Deutsche Aussenpolitik, 1871-1918 (Munich, 1989)
36. D. Calleo, The German Problem Reconsidered (Cambridge, 1979)
37. W. D. Gruner, Die deutschc Frage (Munich, 1985)
38. M. Rauh, 'Die "deutsche Frage"vor 1914: Weltmachtstreben und Obrigkeitsstaat?', pp. 109-66.
39. A. Hillgruber, Diegescheiterte Grofimacht (Diisseldorf, 1980), pp. 38 45.
40. G. Ritter, The Sword and the Sceptre (4 vols., Miami, 1970), ii. 105 18,193-226.
41. N. Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1998), p. 91.
42. D. G. Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton, 1996)
43. D. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War in Europe (Oxford, 1996)
44. J. R. Dukes, 'Militarism and Arms Policy Revisited: The Origins of the German Army Law of 1913', in J. R. Dukes and J. Remak (ed.), Another Germany. A Reconsideration of the Imperial Era (Boulder, 1988), PP-19-39
45. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War, p. 416.
46. Ferguson, The Pity of War, pp. 1-173
47. id., 'Public Finance and National Security: The Domestic Origins of the First World War Revisited", Past and Present, cxlii (1994), 725 52.
48. Ferguson, The Pity of War, p. 153.
49. F. v. Bernhardi, Deutschland undder ndchste Krieg (Stuttgart, 1912), pp. 95, 97.
50. Cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 129.
51. J. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive (Ithaca, NY, 1984), pp. 107-24
52. A. Bucholz, Moltke, Schlieffen and Prussian War Planning (OySorA, 1991), pp. 109-268
53. L. L. Farrar, Jr., The Short War Illusion (Santa Barbara, 1973).
54. L. C. F. Turner, "The Significance of the Schlieffen Plan', in P. M. Kennedy (ed.), The War Plans of the Great Powers, 1880-1914 (Boston, 1985), pp. 199-221.
55. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive, p. 126.
56. Bavarian military attache, cited in Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 163.
57. Cited in Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive, p. 142.
58. J. R. Dukes, 'Militarism and Arms Policy Revisited', pp. 26-9.
59. G. Ritter, The Schlieffen Plan (London, 1958), p. 23
60. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive, pp. 125-132.
61. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive, p. 172
62. Schlieffen, who famously paid little heed to British land forces, is referring here principally to France.
63. Winterfeld to the General Staff, [Archive of the] A[uswartiges] A[mt], Bonn, 30 Aug. 1911, R6753, A13921; Hugo, 12 Aug. 1905, AA, R6747, A14624.
64. G. Krumeich, 'La puissance militaire francaise vue de l'Allemagne autour de 1900', in P. Milza and R. Poidevin (ed.), La Puissance francaise a la belle epoque (Brussels, 1992), pp. 199-210
65. See infra, pp. 583-8, 593-8.
66. Cited in Fischer, Germany i Aims in the First World War, p. 30.
67. Bülow memorandum to Bethmann, 15 May 1909, AA R6605, A8510.
68. Bethmann Hollweg, Reflections on the World War, p. 115.
69. B. v. Bülow, Imperial Germany (London, 1914), pp. 69 72.
70. Mommsen, Grossmachtstellungund Weltpolitik, pp. 207-93.
71. Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 126.
72. Cited in Mommsen, Grossmachtstellung und Weltpolitik, p. 210.
73. Cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 117.
74. Cited in Mommsen, Crossmachtstellung und Weltpolitik, p. 211.
75. Bethmann Hollweg, Reflections on the World War, p. 115.
76. W. J. Mommsen, 'Public Opinion and Foreign Policy in Wilhelmine Germany, 1897-1914', in id., Imperial Germany, 1867-1918, pp. 189-204.
77. Calculated from K. Koszyk, Deutsche Presse im 19. JahrhuntUrt (Berlin, 1966), p. 304-8
78. G. Hohorst, J. Kocka, G. A. Ritter, Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch, vol. ii (2nd revised edn., Munich, 1978), p. 26.
79. Cited in P. G. Lauren, Diplomats and Bureaucrats (Stanford, 1976), p. 57.
80. Fischer, 'Das Bild Frankreichs in Deutschland in den Jahren vor dem ersten Weltkrieg', 5O5-19.
81. H. Kaelble, 'Wahrnehmung der Industrialisierung: Die franzosische Gesellschaft im Bild der Deutschen zwischen 1891 und 1914', in W. Siifi (ed.), Obergdnge: Zeitgeschichtezwischen Utopie und Machbarktit (Berlin, 1989), pp. 123-38. Most of the arguments here are from M. Hewitson, 'German Public Opinion and the Question of Industrial Modernity: Wilhelmine Depictions of die French Economy', European Review of History (forthcoming).
82. Julius Maier-Graefe, in Zukunft, 9 June 1900, vol. viii.
83. Krumeich, 'La puissance militaire francaise vue d'Allemagne autour de 1900', pp. 199-210. The arguments here are from M. Hewitson, 'Images of die Enemy: German Depictions of die French Military, 1890-1914' (unpublished paper).
84. K. Schirmacher, Dcutschland und Frankreich settJJ Jahren (Berlin, 1906), p. 81.
85. M. Hewitson, National Identity and Political Thought in Germany (Oxford, forthcoming): calculated from newspaper articles of eight lines or more in the Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, Germania, Freisinnige Zeitung and Vorwärts.
86. Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 12, 23 Aug., 9 Nov. 1899,13 Feb. 1900.
87. Deutsche Zeitung, 25 June 1901; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 16 Jan. 1903.
88. Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten, 10 Dec. 1901; Germania, 15 Aug. 1899.
89. Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 20 Dec. 1898.
90. Allgemeine Zeitung, 31 July 1901.
91. Bülow to Eulenburg, 23 Dec. 1889, in J. C. G. Rohl (ed.), Philipp Eulenburgs politische Korrespondenz (3 vols., Boppard, 1976-83), i. 390
92. Bülow to Eulenburg, 13 Mar. 1893, cited in P. Winzen, Bülows VCeltmachtkonzept: Untersuchungen zur Fruhphase seiner Aussenpolitik, 1897-1901 (Boppard, 1977), p. 47
93. Holstein, writing in 1907, recalling a conversation with the French ambassador in Berlin in 1886, in N. Rich and M. H. Fisher (ed.), Die Geheimen Papiere Friedrich von Holsteins, vol. i (Gottingen, 1956), pp. 110-11; and a report by Holstein in The Times, 12 Nov. 1870, in H. Rogge (ed.), Friedrich von Holstein. Lebensbektnntnis in Briefen an eine Frau (Berlin, 1932), p. 95. Cf. A. v. Hohenlohe, Aus meinem Leben (Frankfurt a.M., 1925), p. 317.
94. Bülow to Radolin, 19 June 1901, in J. Lepsiusrtd et al. (ed.), [Die] Grosse Politik [der Europiiischen Kabinene] (40 vols., Berlin, 1922-7), xviii. 778 80.
95. Bülow to William II, 20 May 1903, cited in N. Rich, Friedrich von Holstein (Cambridge, 1965), p. 675.
96. Grosse Politik, xii. 266.
97. H. Rogge (ed.), Holstein und Harden (Munich, 1959), p. 144.
98. Radolin, as ambassador in St Petersburg, to Hohenlohe, 29 June 1899: Grosse Politik, xiii. 267.
99. Holstein to Radolin, 6 Nov. 1901, in N. Rich and M. H. Fisher (ed.), Die Geheimen Papiere Friedrich von Hobteins (4 vols., Gottingen, 1956-63), iv. 242.
100. Münster to the German Foreign Office, 3 Mar. 1900: AA R7187, A2798.
101. Münster to Hohenlohe, 24 Nov. 1898: Grosse Politik, xiii. 244.
102. G. P. Gooch, Franco-German Relations, 1871-1914 (London, 1923), pp. 38-42.
103. Groeben to Bethmann, 22 Nov. 1911, Archive of the Reichskanzlei, Berlin, 11705/11706,5/2.
104. See, in particular, H. Raulff, Zwischcn Machtpolitik und Imperialismus: Die Deutsche Frankreichpolitik, 1904 190; (Diisseldorf, 1976), pp. 80 125.
105. P. Guillen, L 'Allemagne et le Maroc de 1870 a 190$ (Paris, 1967), pp. 551-2,586, 635, 697, 718, 759-61
106. F. Rosen, Aus einem diplomatischen Wanderleben (4 vols., Berlin, 1931-59), i. 25,150-1; Raulff, Zwischen Machtpolitik und Imperialismus, p. 112.
107. Holstein memorandum, 22 Feb. 1906; Grosse Politik, xxi, 207-8.
108. Holstein to Brauer, 7 Dec. 1906, cited in Rich, Friedrich von Holstein, p. 730.
109. F. Thimme (ed.), 'Aus dem Nachlafi des Fursten Radolin', Berliner Monatshefte, xv (1937), 854-5.
110. Holstein to Brauer, 7 Dec. 1906, in Rich, Friedrich von Hobtein, p. 730.
111. Thimme, 'Aus dem Nachlaß des Fursten Radolin', 844.
112. Raulff, Zwischen Machtpolitik und Imperialismus, pp. 65-6, 80.
113. Bülow, Imperial Germany, pp. 80-1.
114. Bülow to Foreign Office, 31 July 1905, in Rich, Fricdrich von Holstein, p. 717.
115. Bülow to Foreign Office, 30 Sep. 1905; Grosse Politik, xx. 595.
116. Rosen to Bülow, 22 Sep. 1905 (Grosse Politik, xx. 581)
117. Flotow to Bülow, 7 June 1905 (ibid., 406-7)
118. Rosen, Aus einem diplomatischen Wanderleben, i. 42,137-9, 152
119. William II to Bülow, 26 Nov. 1905, in Rich, Friedrich von Holstein, p. 728.
120. H. RaulfF, Zwischen Machtpolitik undImperialisms, p. 125.
121. Flotow to Bülow, 23 Apr. 1906; Grosse Politik, xxi. 348 9.
122. Berliner Tageblatt, 21 Nov. 1908; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 15 July 1905.
123. Simplicissimus, 31 Oct. 1905, no. 31.
124. For instance, Germania, 31 Mar., 27, 29 Apr., 20 June, 5 July, 12,13 Oct. 1905.
125. Freisinnige Zeitung, 29 Sept. 1905. For the epithets, Dresdner Nachrichten, 23 Sept. 1905; Germania, 31 Mar. and 20 June 1905.
126. Berliner Tageblatt, 8 Nov. 1905.
127. Tagliche Rundschau, 27 Apr. 1905; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 3 May 1907; Reichsbote, 13 Oct. 1910.
128. Reichsbote, 7July 1905; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 23 June, 2 Dec. 1905,28 June 1907,25 May 1910.
129. Tag, 5 May 1907. See ibid., 2 July 1911, by E. v. Liebert, the chairman of the Reichsverbandgegen die Sozialdemokratie.
130. For instance, see an article entitled 'A German-French Alliance' by a Free- Conservative deputy, in Tag, 7 July 1905.
131. Neuc Preußische Zeitung, 4 July 1905.
132. Rhcinisch-Westfalische Zeitung, 3 Apr. 1907; Post, 14 Apr., 18 Aug. 1907; Neue Preufische Zeitung, 18 Apr., 10 July 1907, 11, 18 Feb. 1909; Dresdner Neueste Nachrichten, 27 Apr. 1907; Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 May 1907; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 28 June 1907,25 May 1910; Kieler Neueste Nachrichten, 30 June 1907.
133. Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, 29 Aug. 1905.
134. Vossische Zeitung, 10 July 1905.
135. Berliner Tageblatt, 20 Oct. 1905.
136. Vorwdrts, 31 Mar. 1905.
137. There were twenty cartoons on France in Morocco and nineteen on France in Europe and the rest of the world. Only cartoons in which France was one of the principal protagonists were counted.
138. Kolnische Zeitung, 4 July 1911.
139. Frankfurter Zeitung, 3 July 1911; Vossische Zeitung, 4 July 1911; Freisinnige Zeitung, 4 July 1911
140. Berliner Tageblatt, 25 July 1911; and Matthias Erzberger, in Tag, 28 July 1911.
141. Tag, 18 July 1911.
142. Berliner Tageblatt, 14 Sept. 1911, reporting Bebel; Vorwarts, 11 May, 5, 6 July 1911.
143. Tagliche Rundschau, 2 July 1911; August Keim, in Tag, 12 and 25 July 1911; Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 12 July 1911; Berliner Neueste Nachrichten, 17 July 1911; Staatsburger Zeitung, 20 July 1911; Germania, 30 July 1911; Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 Sept. 1911.
144. Tag, 18 July 1911.
145. Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 13 Sept. 1911.
146. Rheinisch-WestfdlischeZeitung, 9 July 1911.
147. Tag, 3 Oct. 1911; Neue Prcujßische Zeitung, 5, n July, 6, 12 Sept., 12 Oct. 1911; Hamburger Nachrichten, 6 July 1911; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 11, 16, 28 July, 3 Nov. 1911; Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten, 25 July 1911; Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, 26 July 1911; Germania, 20 Aug., 8,16 Dec. 1911; Staatsburger Zeitung, 16 Oct. 1911.
148. Tag, 25 July 1911; Zukunft, 29 July 1911; Reichsbote, 26 July, 27 Sept. 1911; Germania, 13 Oct. 1911, Deutsche Zeitung, 26 Oct. 1911.
149. Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 23 Sept. 1911.
150. Hallesche Zeitung, 21 Sept. 1911.
151. Bülow to William II, 27 June 1907; Grosst Politik, xxi. 576.
152. Bethmann Hollweg, late 1909, cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, pp. 119-20; William II to Bülow, 26 June 1907 (Grosse Politik, xxi. 574-5); Miihlberg to Bülow, 17 July 1907 (ibid., xxi. 594); Lancken to Bethmann Hollweg, 28 July 1909 (ibid., xxix. 13-15).
153. Schoen memorandum, 5 Jan. 1911: AA R6608, A319.
154. Kiderlen, n.d., cited in E. Oncken, Panthersprung nach Agadir. Die deutschc Politik wdhrend der Zwcitcn Marokkokrise (Diisseldorf, 1981), p. 51.
155. Kiderlen's second resignation letter to William II, 19 July 1911, quoted in Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 77. Bethmann did not pass the two resignation letters on to the Kaiser directly but rather summarized them, watering down their content.
156. Oncken, Panthersprung nach Agadir, pp. 291, 295.
157. Kiderlen, 4 May 1911: ibid., p. 123.
158. Kiderlen's friend Weizsäcker reporting a conversation widi the Secretary of State, 23 Apr. 1911: ibid., p. 112.
159. Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 90.
160. Lancken, 9 Feb. 1912 (Grosse Politik, xxxi. 386); Lancken, 12 Feb. 1912 (ibid., xxix. 452-3)
161. Schoen, 5 Feb. 1914 (ibid., xxxix. 250-1).
162. Lancken, 14 Feb. 1912: ibid., xxix. 452-3.
163. Schoen to Bethmann, 22 Mar. 1913: ibid., xxxi. 396-401.
164. Ibid. Schoen to Bethmann, 16 Judy 1913: ibid., xxxix. 201.
165. Schoen, 4 Apr. 1914: AA, R7O42, A6753.
166. Schoen to Bethmann, 22 Mar. 1912: Grosse Politii, xxxi. 396-401.
167. Winterfeld to Moltke, 13 Jan. 1913; ibid., xxxi. 419-20.
168. Winterfeld, 20 Aug. 1913; AA, R6756, A17204. Also, Winterfeld, 11 May 1912 (Grosse Politik, xxxi. 403); 14 Feb., 5,12 Mar. 1913 (ibid., xxxix. 148 52,169-70,172 4); Schoen, 17 Feb., i, 13 Mar., 17 June, 8 Aug., 15 Nov., 31 Dec. 1913,10 and 19 June 1914 (ibid., xxxix. 152,164,194 7,202 5,222 8, 244-7, 261.171-4)
169. Recently, for instance, by Mommsen, Grossmachtstellung und Weltpolitik, p. 273.
170. Langwerth von Simmern, 15 Mar. 1913: Grosse Politik, xxxix. 178-81.
171. Bethmann to Schoen, 10 Apr. 1913: ibid., xxxix. 185-6.
172. Schoen to Bethmann, 29 Apr. 1913: ibid., xxxix. 188 9.
173. Moltke memorandum, 21 Dec. 1912, cited in Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 180. Cf. ibid., 118-19.
174. Tag, 19 July 1913,17 June 1914.
175. Tag, 16 Jan. 1913; Tdgliche Rundschau, 27 Mar. 1913; Deutsche Volkswirtschaftliche Correspondenz, 22 Apr. 1913; Deutsche Tageszeitung, 18 Aug. 1913.
176. Neue Preufßsche Zeitung, 25 Oct. 1911.
177. Freisinnige Zeitung, 22 Apr. 1913. See also National-Liberal publications such as the Braunschweigische Landeszeitung, 28 May 1914, and left-wing Catholic ones like the Kdlnische Volkszeitung, 25 Oct. 1911.
178. Leipziger Volkszeitung, 14 May 1913; Frankfurter Zeitung, 13 May 1913; Berliner Tagebktt, 13 May 1913; National-Zeitung, 30 Sept. 1913; K. E. Schmidt, in Tag, 9 May 1913; Neue Preufiischc Zeitung, 15 May 1913.
179. Vossische Zeitung, 13 May 1913.
180. Tag, 25 Dec. 1912.
181. Kolnische Zeitung, 10 Mar. 1913.
182. Ibid; Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 196.
183. The Kolnische Volkszeitung, 13 Mar. 1913, confirmed this.
184. Deutsche Tageszeitung, 13 Mar. 1913; Staatburger Zeitung, 12 Mar. 1913.
185. Vossische Zeitung, 13 Mar. 1913.
186. Liberal newspapers like the Frankfurter Zeitung, 2 June 1914, Kolnische Zeitung, 2 June 1914, Vossische Zeitung, 2 June 1914, Berliner Tageblatt, 29 May 1914, National-Zeitung, 29 May 1914, were in favour, nationalist ones such as the Magdeburgische Zeitung, 31 May 1914, Berliner Neueste Nachrichtcn, 2 June 1914, Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten, 4 June 1914, Hamburger Nachrichten, 4 June 1914, and Deutsche Tageszeitung, 5 June 1914, were against.
187. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, pp. 223-88.
188. Cited in Ritter, The Schlieffen Plan, p. 171.
189. Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 77.
190. Cited in Lerman, The Chancellor as Courtier, p. 142.
191. Cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 125.
192. W. C. Thompson, In the Eye of the Storm (Iowa City, 1980), p. 80
193. T. R. E. Paddock, 'Still Stuck at Sevastopol: The Depiction of Russia during die Russo-Japanese War and the Beginning of the First World War in the German Press', German History, xvi (1998), 363-4.
194. Bernhardi, Deutschland und der ndchste Krieg, p. 98.
195. 4. Cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 119.
196. 6. Cited in Ferguson, The Pity of War, p. 98.
197. Cited in M. Kitchen, The German Officer Corps, 1890 1914 (Oxford, 1968), p. HI.
198. Cited in Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive, p. 148.
199. Kurt Riezler on Bethmann, cited in Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 149: A. Bucholz, Moltke, Schlieffen and Prussian War Planning, pp. 214-22, on Moltke.
200. Bethmann and Zimmermann, cited in I. Geiss (ed.),Jufy 1014, pp. 118,121,130.
201. Cited in Troy, 'Still Stuck at Sevastopol', 358. Cf. N. Stargardt, The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics, 1866 1014 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 54-67,142-46.
202. Ferguson, The Pity of War, p. 25.
203. Bethmann to Tschirschky, 30 July 1914, in I. Geiss (ed.),Jufy 1014 (London, 1972), p. 305.
204. Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, p. 169.