The Security Council's Authorization of Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations

Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law

Volumn 6, Issue , 2002, Pages 535-557

  Villani, Ugo ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 85180663273     PISSN: 13894633     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1163/18757413-00601011     Document Type: Article

References (53)

1. Article 53 para. 1 declares that such an authorization is not necessary for measures against any "enemy state", i.e. any state which, during the Second World War, has been an enemy of any signatory of the Charter (para. 2), directed against renewal of aggressive policy on the part of such state, until such time as the Organization may, on request of the Governments concerned, be charged with the responsibility for preventing further aggression by such a state. However, this part of Article 53 would appear to be no longer applicable; in fact, all former enemy states have been admitted to the United Nations and thus considered as "peace-loving" by the competent organs of the Organization (Article 4). Article 53 has thus been rendered inoperative since the classification of a former enemy state has been replaced by its being defined as a "peace-loving state", a judgement that is incompatible with the suspicion of aggression. In legal theory see, also for further references, G. Ress, "Article 53", in: B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations. A Commentary, 1994, 722 et seq., (735 et seq.). Ress, see note 1, 730.
2. My italics.
3. H. Kelsen, The Law of the United Nations. A Critical Analysis of its Fundamental Problems, 1951, 145 et seq. and 326.
4. U. Villani, "11 ruolo delle organizzazioni regionali per il mantenimento della pace nel sistema dell'ONU", in: Divenire sociale e adeguamento del diritto. Studi in onore di Francesco Capotorti, Vol. I, Diritto Internazionale, 1999, 595 et seq., (611 et seq.).
5. Article 31 para. 1 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969, UNTS Vol. 1155 No. 18232, which corresponds to customary international law: see the judgement of 3 February 1994 of the ICJ in the case concerning the territorial dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/ Chad), ICJ Reports 1994, 3 et seq., (21 et seq.).
6. As is well known, the prohibition originally laid down by Article 2 para. 4 of the Charter must now be considered as provided for by a provision in customary international law: see the judgement of 27 June 1986 of the ICJ in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), ICJ Reports 1986, 14 et seq., (99 et seq.).
7. C. Schreuer, "Regionalism v. Universalism", EJIL 6 (1995), 477 et seq., (491); in this sense see E. Jimenez de Arechaga, "La coordination des systemes de l'ONU et de l'Organisation des Etats Americains pour le reglement pacifique des differends et la securite collective", RdC 111 (1964), 446 et seq., (480 et seq.);
8. J.A. Frowein, "Zwangsmassnahmen von Regionalorganisationen", in: U. Beyerlin et al. (eds), Recht zwischen Umbruch und Bewahrung. Volkerrecht, Europarecht, Staatsrecht. Festschrift fur Rudolf Bernhardt, 1995, 57 et seq., (66 et seq.);
9. for different opinions see D. Momtaz, "La delegation par le Conseil de Securite de Pexecution de ses actions coercitives aux organisations regionales", A. ED. I. 43 (1997), 105 et seq., (112);
10. R. Pernice, Die Sicherung des Weltfriedens durch regionale Organisationen und die Vereinten Nationen. Eine Untersuchung zur Kompetenzverteilung nach Kapitel VIII der UN-Charta, 1972, 114 et seq.;
11. R. Wolfrum, "Der Beitrag regionaler Abmachungen zur Friedenssicherung: Moglichkeiten und Grenzen", ZaoRV 53 (1993), 576 et seq., (582 et seq.).
12. See, among others, A. Gioia, "The United Nations and Regional Organizations in the Maintenance of Peace and Security", in: M. Bothe/ N. Ronzitti/ A. Rosas (eds), The OSCE in the Maintenance ofPeace and Security. Conflict Prevention, Crisis Management and Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, 1997, 191 et seq., (213 et seq.);
13. C. Walter, "Security Council Control over Regional Action", Max Planck UNYB 1 (1997), 129 et seq., (136 et seq.).
14. G.I.A.D. Draper, "Regional Arrangements and Enforcement Action", Revue egyptienne de droit international 20 (1964), 1 et seq., (18 et seq.). In the sense that action merely recommended by a regional organization would not be an enforcement action and, therefore, would not be subordinate to the authorization of the Security Council, see A. Cheyes, "Law and the Quarantine of Cuba", Foreign Aff. 41 (1962-1963), 550 et seq., (556); L.C. Meeker, "Defensive Quarantine and the Law", AJIL 57 (1963), 515 et seq., (520 et seq.).
15. Gioia, see note 9, 218 et seq.
16. A. Eide, "Peace-keeping and Enforcement by Regional Organizations", JPR 3 (1966), 125 et seq., (140); Walter, see note 9, 136.
17. See J. A. Frowein, Das Verhdltnis zwischen der Vereinten Nationen und Regionalorganisationen bei Friedenssicherung und Friedenserhaltung, 1996, 17; Walter, see note 9, 177; O. Corten/ F. Dubuisson, "Uhypothese d'une regie emergente fondant une intervention militaire sur une 'autorisation implicite* du Conseil de Securite", RGDIP 104 (2000), 873 et seq., (876).
18. See, e.g., Cheyes, see note 10, 556 et seq.; Meeker, see note 10, 522.
19. For the text of that agreement see M. Weller, Regional Peace-keeping and International Enforcement: the Liberian Crisis, 1994, 343 et seq.
20. Walter, see note 9, 185; for a different interpretation see Corten/ Dubuisson, note 13, 894 et seq.
21. The approval of the Security Council raises, moreover, the problem of admissibility of an approbation following the intervention of a regional organization. On this question, see also Section VII.
22. For the declarations by NATO and the positions of the Member States' governments, see B. Simma, "NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects", EJIL 10 (1999), 1 et seq., (6 et seq.); Corten/ Dubuisson, see note 13, 884 et seq.; P. Picone, "La 'guerra del Kosovo' e il diritto internazionale generale", Riv. Dir. Int. 83 (2000), 309 et seq., (313 et seq.).
23. S/RES/1160 (1998) of 31 March 1998.
24. S/RES/1199 (1998) of 23 September 1998.
25. S/RES/1203 (1998) of 24 October 1998.
26. See again S/RES/1199 (1998) of 23 September 1998.
27. See M. Spinedi, "Uso della forza da parte della NATO in Jugoslavia e diritto internazionale", Quaderni Forum 12 (1998), No. 3, Guerra e pace in Kosovo. Questioni etiche, politiche e giuridiche, 23 et seq., (28).
28. See U. Villani, "La guerra del Kosovo: una guerra umanitaria o un crimine internazionale?", Volontari e terzo mondo 27 (1999), No. 1-2, 26 et seq., (29 et seq.).
29. See, for references, Picone, see note 18, 351.
30. See A. Pellet, "La guerre du Kosovo - Le fait rattrape par le droit", International Law Forum 1 (1999), 160 et seq., (164);
31. L. Henkin, "Kosovo and the Law of humanitarian Intervention'", AJIL 93 (1999), 824 et seq., (826 et seq.); L. Condorelli, "La risoluzione 1244 (1999) del Consiglio di Sicurezza e Pintervento NATO contro la Repubblica Federale di Jugoslavia", in: N. Ronzitti (ed.), NATO, conflitto in Kosovo e Costituzione italiana, 2000, 31 et seq., (39 et seq.);
32. for a different view F. Francioni, "Of War, Humanity and Justice: International Law After Kosovo", Max Planck UNYB 4 (2000), 107 et seq., (116);
33. see also H. Neuhold; "Collective Security After Operation Allied Force", Max Planck UNYB 4 (2000), 73 et seq. Condorelli, see above, 40.
34. SeeDoc.S/PV.4011,7.
35. SeeDoc.S/PV.4011,8.
36. Annex 1 contains the general principles on a political solution to the Kosovo crisis adopted on 6 May 1999 by the G-8 Foreign Ministers at the Petersberg Centre.
37. My italics.
38. On the intervention of the German Foreign Minister and, more generally, on the debate in the General Assembly, see Corten/ Dubuisson, see note 13, 889 et seq.; N. Ronzitti, "Uso della forza e intervento di umanita", in: Ronzitti, see note 26, 1 et seq., (21 et seq.).
39. Cf. Cheyes, see note 10, 556 et seq.; Meeker, see note 10, 522.
40. Doc. S/1999/328.
41. See, e.g., M. Bettati, "Les premieres lemons du Kosovo", Le Courrier de WNESCO, juillet-aout 1999, 60; Henkin, see note 26, 826.
42. See, in this sense, Jimenez de Arechaga, see note 8, 497 et seq.; Ress, see note 1, 734; Schreuer, see note 8, 492; Gioia, see note 9, 221; Walter, see note 9, 183 et seq.; and, as regards the case of Kosovo, M.G. Kohen, "L'emploi de la force et la crise du Kosovo: vers un nouveau desordre juridique international", RBDI 32 (1999), 122 et seq., (136); N. Ronzitti, "Lessons of International Law from NATO's Armed Intervention Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", The International Spectator 34 (1999), No. 3, 45 et seq., (48 et seq.); Spinedi, see note 23, 28 et seq.; Corten/ Dubuisson, see note 13, 900 et seq.
43. In this sense, see, e.g., Walter, see note 9, 177 et seq.; Condorelli, see note 26, 39 et seq.
44. See Jimenez de Arechaga, see note 8, 497 et seq.; Eide, see note 12, 139 et seq.; M. Akehurst, "Enforcement Action by Regional Organizations, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States", BYIL 42 (1967), 175 et seq., (210 et seq.); J. Wolf, "Regional Arrangements and the
45. UN Charter", EPIL 4 (2000), 91 et seq., (95); Ress, see note 1, 734; Gioia, see note 9, 220 et seq.; Corten/ Dubuisson, see note 13, 906.
46. Various authors have insisted on this point; besides those cited above, see J.N. Moore, "The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Maintenance of World Order", in: C.E. Black/ R. A. Falk (eds), The Future of the International Legal Order, Vol. 3, 1971, 122 et seq., (160); Schreuer, see note 8, 492;
47. A. Del Vecchio, "Consiglio di Sicurezza ed Organizzazioni internazionali regionali nel mantenimento della pace", Comunita Internazionale 50 (1995), 229 et seq., (241 et seq.); Picone, see note 18, 352 et seq.
48. In this sense Picone, see note 18, 352 et seq.
49. See E. Cannizzaro, "Sull'attuazione di risoluzioni del Consiglio di Sicurezza da parte di organizzazioni regionali", Riv. Dir. Int. 76 (1993), 408 et seq.;
50. I.F. Dekker/ E.P.J. Myjer, "Air Strikes on Bosnian Positions: Is NATO also Legally the Proper Instrument of the UN?", LJIL 9 (1996), 411 et seq., (415 et seq.);
51. R. Higgins, "Some thoughts on the evolving relationship between the Security Council and NATO", in: Boutros-Ghali Amicorum Discipulorumque Liber, 1998, Vol. I, 511 et seq., (522 et seq.). See above, Section IV.
52. See S/RES/1156 (1998) of 16 March 1998, S/RES/1162 (1998) of 17 April 1998, S/RES/1181 (1998) of 13 July 1998, S/RES/1231 (1999) of 11 March 1999, S/RES/1270 (1999) of 22 October 1999, S/RES/1313 (2000) of 4 August 2000, S/RES/1346 (2001) of 30 March 2001, S/RES/1370 (2001) of 18 September 2001, S/RES/1385 (2001) of 19 December 2001, S/RES/1389 (2002) of 16 January 2002.
53. See V. Grado, "II ristabilimento della democrazia in Sierra Leone", Riv. Dir. Int. 83 (2000), 361 et seq., (385 et seq.); on the crisis in Sierra Leone see also S. Szurek, "Sierra Leone: un etat en attente de 'paix durable' - la communaute internationale dans Tengranage de la paix en Afrique de l'Ouest", A.ED.L 46 (2000), 176 et seq.