The Nature of the Native Mind: Contested Views of Dutch Colonial Psychiatrists in the former Dutch East Indies

Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies

Volumn Part F63, Issue , 2007, Pages 172-196

  Pols, Hans ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Colonial Context; Colonial Government; Colonial Society; Ethical Policy; Nationalist Movement

Indexed keywords

EID: 85161438307     PISSN: 26351633     EISSN: 26351641     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1057/9780230593244_8     Document Type: Chapter

References (72)

1. Pramoedya Ananta Toer, House of Glass (New York: 1997 [1988]), p. 62. STOVIA stands for School ter Opleding van Inlansche Artsen, the School for the Education of Indigenous Physicians. The ‘I’ in the quote is the character of Pangemanann, member of the Algemeene Secretariaat, who collects intelligence and monitors the nationalist movements in the Dutch East Indies. Pangemanann made a special study of Tirto Ady Suryo, who was a student at the STOVIA for a few years and who became one of the first nationalist leaders of Indonesia. Toer’s Buru Quarter is a literary rendition of Tirto’s biography.
2. See Frances Gouda, Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942 (Amsterdam: 1995), pp. 24–27. The principles of the ethical policy were most clearly outlined in Conrad Theodor van Deventer, ‘Een Ereschuld [A Debt of Honour],’ Indische Gids, 3 (1899) 205–57.
3. Robert van Niel, The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite (The Hague: 1960), places the demise of the ethical culture in 1920.
4. Ter Kennismaking met den Ned.-Ind. Politiek Economischen Bond [An Introduction to the PEB] (Weltevreden: 1919). The founder of the PEB, C. Lulofs, stated that ‘He placed himself on the side of the ethnological school, which teaches that significant racial and character differences often create an unbridgeable chasm divide that separates the main racial groups.’ (p. 28).
5. For the STOVIA, see A.M. Luyendijk-Elshout, ed., Dutch Medicine in the Malay Archipelago, 1816–1942 (Amsterdam: 1989); A. de Knecht-van Eekelen, ‘Tropische Geneeskunde in Nederland en Koloniale Geneeskunde in Nederland-Indie,’ Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 105, 3 (1992) 407–28; and A. de Waart, ed., Ontwikkeling van het Geneeskundig Onderwijs te Weltevreden, 1851– 1926 (Uitgave ter Herdenking van het 75–Jarig Bestaan van de School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen (STOVIA)) (Weltevreden: 1926). Today, the buildings which once housed the medical school are now home to the Kebangkitan Nasional [Museum of National Awakening], which celebrates the founding of Budi Utomo, the first nationalist movement in 1908, and the significant involvement of physicians in the nationalist movements of Indonesia.
6. P.H.M. Travaglino, ‘Politiek en Psychologie [Politics and Psychology],’ PEB: Orgaan van den Nederlandsch-Indischen Politiek-Economischen Bond, 5, 8 (1924) 89.
7. Ibid., 87. Travaglino was not the first physician to argue for a psychological colonial policy. See, for example, J.H.F. Kohlbrugge, Blikken in het Zieleleven van den Javaan en Zijner Overheerschers [Views on the Mental Life of the Javanese and Their Rulers] (Leiden: 1907); J.H.F. Kohlbrugge, ‘Psychologische Koloniale Politiek [Psychological Colonial Policy],’ Vereeniging Moederland en Koloniën, 8, 2 (1907) 1–44; J.H.F. Kohlbrugge, Zielkunde Als Grondslag Van Koloniaal Beleid [Psychology as a Foundation for Colonial Policy],’ De Militaire Gids: Orgaan voor Weermacht en Natie, 27 (1908) 229–51.
8. Travaglino, ‘Politiek En Psychologie,’ 88.
9. Travaglino had elaborated on this topic previously: P.H.M. Travaglino, ‘Het Karakter Van Den Inlander [The Character of the Native],’ PEB: Orgaan van den Ned.-Ind. Politiek-Ekonomischen Bond 5, 27 and 28 (1920) 343–47; 357–60.
10. Travaglino had reported these findings earlier in the medical press: P.H.M Travaglino, ‘De Psychose van den Inlander in verband met Zijn Karakter [The Psychosis of the Native in Relation to His Character],’ Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlands Indië, 60 (1920) 99–111; P.H.M. Travaglino, ‘De Sociale Beteekenis der Schizophrenie voor de Inlandsche Samenleving [The Social Meaning of Schizophrenia for Indigenous Society],’ Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indië, 2 (1925) 125–131; P.M.H. Travaglino, ‘De Schizophrenie en de Javaanse Psyche [Schizophrenia and the Javanese Psyche],’ Psychiatrische en Neurologische Bladen, 31 (1927) 416–25.
11. Christoph Bendick, Emil Kraepelins Forschungsreise nach Java 1904: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Ethnopsychiatrie, vol. 49, Kölner Medizinhistorische Beiträge (Köln: Institut für Geschichte der Medizin der Universität Köln, 1989). The mental hospital near Buitenzorg had opened in 1882; for an overview of its early history see Johan Wilhelm Hofmann, Bericht ueber Die Landesirrenanstalt in Buitenzorg (Java, Niederl.-Ostindien) Von 1894 Bis Anfang Juli 1901 (Batavia: 1902).
12. Emil Kraepelin, ‘Vergleichende Psychiatrie,’ Centralblad für Nervenheilkunde und Psychiatrie, 27 (1904) 433–37; Emil Kraepelin, ‘Psychiatrisches Aus Java,’ Centralblad für Nervenheilkunde und Psychiatrie, 15 (1904) 468–469. Several commentators have later claimed that Kraepelin’s visit to Java constituted the birth of comparative or cross-cultural psychiatry. See, for example, Alexander Boroffka, ‘Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) and Transcultural Psychiatry: A Historical Note,’ Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, 25 (1988) 236–39; Wolfgang G. Jilek, ‘Emil Kraepelin and Comparative Sociocultural Psychiatry,’ European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 245 (1995) 231–38; for a broader history see Ana Maria G. Raimundo Oda, Claudio Eduardo M. Banzato, and Paulo Dalgalarrondo, ‘Some Origins of Cross-Cultural Psychiatry,’ History of Psychiatry, 16 (2005) 155–69.
13. Kraepelin’s ideas on Völkerpsychologie were inspired by his former teacher Wilhelm Wundt. See Rainer Diriwachter, ‘Volkerpsychologie: The Synthesis That Never Was,’ Culture & Psychology, 10, 1 (2004) 85–109.
14. P.H.M. Travaglino, ‘Het Karakter Van Den Inlander [The Character of the Native],’ PEB: Orgaan van den Nederlandsch-Indischen Politiek-Ekonomischen Bond, 5, 28 (1920) 359.
15. See Gouda, Dutch Culture Overseas, in particular Chapter 4, ‘The Native “Other” as the Medieval, Childlike, and Animal “Self” (or as Fundamentally Different): Evolutionary Ideas in Dutch Colonial Rhetoric in Indonesia’; and Jan Breman, ed., Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice (Amsterdam: 1990).
16. Arnold van Gennep, ‘Voordracht, 6e Vergadering, Woensdag 15 Juni [Address],’ Handelingen van den Volksraad (1921) 133–42.
17. ‘Wetenschappelijke Grondslag Eener Ontwikkelingspolitiek [Scientific Foundation for Developmental Policy],’ Handelingen van den Volksraad, no. 1e gewone zitting (1921): Onderdeel 1, Afdeeling 1, stuk 6; p. 12.
18. See J.F. Holleman, ed., Van Vollenhoven on Indonesian Adat Law (The Hague: 1981).
19. F.H. van Loon, ‘Het Onderwijs in De Zenuw-En Zielziekten [Education in Neurology and Psychiatry],’ in Ontwikkeling Van Het Geneeskundig Onderwijs Te Weltevreden, 1851–1926, ed. A. de Waart (Weltevreden: 1926), p. 209.
20. For similar observations in an entirely different colonial context, see Jonathan Sadowsky, ‘Psychiatry and Colonial Ideology in Nigeria,’ Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 71, 1 (1997) 94–111.
21. F.H.G. van Loon, ‘De Psychische Eigenschappen der Maleische Rassen (Verga-dering van 22 Februari 1924) [The Mental Characteristics of the Malay Races],’ Indisch Genootschap: Verslagen der Vergaderingen (1924) 23.
22. See Nikolas Rose, Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought (Cambridge: 1999) for similar thoughts on the government of Western countries. The need and desire to acquire knowledge of the indigenous population not only reflects this trend in Western societies, but also reflects the specific political situation in the Dutch East Indies in the 1920s.
23. Van Loon elaborated on these findings in his many other articles, among them F.H.G. van Loon, ‘Acute Verwardheidstoestanden in Nederlands-Indie [Acute States of Confusion in the Dutch East Indies],’ Tijdschrift voor Geneeksunde in Nederlands Indië, 62 (1922) 658–90; F.H.G. van Loon, ‘Amok and Lattah,’ Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 4 (1927) 434– 44; F.H.G. van Loon, ‘Rassenpsychologische Onderzoekingen [Investigations in Racial Psychology],’ Psychiatrische en Neurologische Bladen, 32 (1928)190– 26; F.H.G. van Loon, ‘Protopathic–Instinctive Phenomena in Normal and Pathological Malay Life,’ British Journal of Medical Psychology, 8 (1928) 264–76.
24. van Loon, ‘Psychische Eigenschappen Maleische Rassen,’ 38.
25. Kohlbrugge, Blikken in het Zieleleven van den Javaan; Kohlbrugge, ‘Psycholo-gische Koloniale Politiek [Psychological Colonial Policy].’
26. Akira Nagazumi, The Dawn of Indonesian Nationalism: The Early Years of the Budi Utomo, 1908–1918, vol. 10, I.D.E. Occasional Papers Series (Tokyo: Institute of Developing Economies, 1972).
27. See Eekelen, ‘Tropische Geneeskunde in Nederland en Koloniale Geneeskunde in Nederland-Indië.’ For the Society for Indigenous Physicians see: Jubileumnummer 1911–1936: Orgaan Vereeniging van Indische Geneeskundigen (Batavia: 1937), in particular W.H. Tehupeiory, ‘Onze Vereening: De Voorgeschiedenis van Hare Oprichting en Hare Kleuterjaren,’ in Jubileumnummer 1911–1936: Orgaan Vereeniging Van Indische Geneeskundigen (Batavia: 1937); and J. Kayadoe, ‘Uit Roerige Jaren,’ in Jubileumnummer 1911–1936: Orgaan Vereeniging Van Indische Geneeskundigen (Batavia: 1937).
28. After 2 years of study in the Netherlands, Indonesian physicians qualified for the official title of physician. For an engaging account of two of the very first medical graduates of the STOVIA who went to the Netherlands for further study, the brothers Tehupeiory, see the following historical novel: Herman Keppy, Tussen Ambon en Amsterdam (Amsterdam: 2004).
29. For the Perhimpunan Indonesia, see John Ingleson, Perhimpunan Indonesia and the Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1923–1928, vol. 4, Monash Papers on Southeast Asia (Clayton VIC: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1975), and Harry A. Poeze, In het Land van de Overheerser I. Indonesiërs in Nederland, 1600–1950 (Dordrecht: 1986).
30. ‘Politiek en Psychologie, Vervolg [Politics and Psychology, Continued],’ PEB: Orgaan van den Ned.-Ind. Politiek-Ekonomischen Bond, 5, 8 (1924) 99–100.
31. Ibid., 100.
32. van Loon, ‘Psychische Eigenschappen Maleische Rassen,’ 43. The first person to speak was Dr. H. Bervoets, who organised medical supplies to be sent to Dutch-reformed medical missionaries in the Indies.
33. Ibid., 45. This speaker was an engineer, P.J. Ott de Vries, an expert on irrigation in the Dutch East Indies.
34. As quoted in: ‘Kemadjoean Hindia,’ Overzicht van de Inlandsche en Maleisch-Chineesche Pers, 50 (1923) 604–05: 604.
35. Ibid., 605.
36. ‘Sinar Hindia,’ Overzicht van de Inlandsche en Maleisch-Chineesche Pers, 1 (1924) 18: 18.
37. ‘Psychiatrisch Fascisme [Psychiatric Fascism],’ De Taak 7, 311 (1924) 1809– 1811.
38. Ibid., 1810.
39. The following information is derived from Joost Coté, ‘Colonial Designs: Thomas Karsten and the Planning of Urban Indonesia,’ Paper presented to the 15th Biennial ASAA Conference, Canberra, 28–31 June 2004 (2004).
40. Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland), Verweerschrift tegen de Rede van Dr. F.H. van Loon over ‘De Psychische Eigenschappen der Maleische Rassen,’ Uitgesproken op de Vergadering van het Indische Genootschap in Den Haag op den 22sten Febuari 1924 [Writ of Defense], Vol. 1, Publicatie van de Bond van Indonesische Artsen, Afdeeling Nederland (Amsterdam: 1924).
41. Latumeten is the only physician who can be identified as one of the coauthors of the pamphlet. He had finished his studies at the STOVIA in 1907 and spent 1922 to 1924 in the Netherlands writing his dissertation on a psychiatric topic, which he defended in June 1924. Upon his return to the Indies, he became the medical superintendent of the mental hospital at Sabang, north of Sumatra. In 1945, he was working in the newly established Ministry of Health in Jakarta. J.B. Sitalana was for further study in the Netherlands in the early 1920s and later specialised in the treatment of leprosy. Sukiman Wirjosandjojo was a Member of Parliament and sometime prime minister after 1949. They were also members of the Indonesische Vereeniging.
42. ‘Dilettantisme of Wetenschap? [Amateurism or Science?],’ Indonesia Merdeka, 2 (1924); ‘Enkele Opmerkingen naar aanleiding van de Rede van Dr. F.H. van Loon: ‘De Psychische Eigenschapen der Maleische Rassen’ voor het Indische Genootschap d.d. 22 Februari 1924 en de door Hem daarop Gegeven ‘Nadere Toelichtingen’ voor de Indonesische Vereeniging d.d. 14 Juni 1924 [Comments on the Lecture of Dr. F.H. van Loon and Further Explanations Provided by Him],’ Indonesia Merdeka, 2 (1924) 51–66; ‘Modern Evan-gelie: Penneprikjes naar aanleiding van V. Loon’s Rede in Den Haag op 14 Juni 1924 [Modern Gospel: Comments],’ Indonesia Merdeka, 2 (1924) 66–68; ‘Verdere Opmerkingen naar aanleiding van De Rede van Dr. F.H. van Loon: ‘De Psychische Eigenschapen der Maleische Rassen’ [Further Comments], Indonesia Merdeka, 2 (1924) 79–91.
43. ‘Nogmaals Dr. van Loon! [Again Dr. van Loon!],’ Orgaan der Vereeniging van Indische Geneeskundigen, 15, 1 (1925) 41–6.
44. ‘De Psychische Eigenschappen der Maleische Rassen [The Mental Characteristics of the Malay Races],’ Orgaan der Vereeniging van Indische Geneeskundigen, 5, 1 (1925) 36–40.
45. ‘Enkele Opmerkingen,’ 56.
46. See Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland), Verweerschrift, 3.
47. Ibid. ‘Psychische Eigenschappen Maleische Rassen,’ 36.
48. van Loon, ‘Psychische Eigenschappen Maleische Rassen,’ 47.
49. J.A. Latumeten, ‘De Beteekenis van het Psychiatrisch-Klinische Onderwijs Voor Indonesië [The Importance of Clinical Education in Psychiatry for Indonesia].’ Orgaan der Vereeniging van Indische Geneeskundigen 16, 2 (1928) 31.
50. ‘Enkele Opmerkingen,’ 60.
51. Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland), Verweerschrift, 1, i.
52. ‘Verdere Opmerkingen,’ 81.
53. Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland), Verweerschrift, 3.
54. Ibid., 3.
55. Ibid., 6, 7.
56. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: 1978).
57. Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland). Verweerschrift, p. 15.
58. Quoted in: Bond van Indonesische Artsen (Afdeeling Nederland), Verweerschrift, p. 11.
59. ‘Enkele Opmerkingen,’ 64.
60. F.H. van Loon. ‘Het Onderwijs in de Zenuw-En Zielziekten.’ In Ontwikkeling van het Geneeskundig Onderwijs te Weltevreden, 1851–1926, edited by A. de Waart (Weltevreden: 1926), pp. 209–14.
61. J.A. Latumeten, ‘De Beteekenis van het Psychiatrisch-Klinische Onderwijs voor Indonesië [The Importance of Clinical Education in Psychiatry for Indonesia],’ Orgaan der Vereeniging van Indische Geneeskundigen, 16, 2 (1928) 25–38: 29.
62. Reported in ‘Enkele Opmerkingen’ and ‘Verdere Opmerkingen.’
63. J.B. Sitanala, ‘Beschouwt de Oosterling “Arbeid” als een “Vloek” des Heeren? [Do Eastern Individuals View Labour as a Curse of the Lord],’ in Het Eerste Congress van de Vereeniging van Indonesische Geneeskundigen Gehouden op 24, 25, En 26 December 1938 te Semarang (Batavia: 1938).
64. Het Eerste Congress van de Vereeniging van Indonesische Geneeskundigen Gehouden op 24, 25, En 26 December 1938 te Semarang [First Congress of the Association of Indonesian Physicians] (Batavia: 1938), p. 184.
65. For the autobiography of Hatta see: Mohammad Hatta, Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian Patriot: Memoirs, C.L.M. Penders ed. (Singapore: 1981).
66. For Perhimpunan Indonesia, see Ingleson, Perhimpunan Indonesia and the Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1923–1928. For the increasingly radical views of this group see Indonesiche Vereeniging, Gedenkboek 1908–1923 [Memorial Volume 1908–1923] (Den Haag: 1924). For Indonesian organisa-tions in the Netherlands see: Poeze, In het Land van de Overheerser I. Indonesiërs in Nederland, 1600–1950.
67. Mohammad Hatta, ‘Indonesië Vrij,’ in Verspreide Geschriften (Jakarta: 1952), 254; my translation. See also Mohammad Hatta, Portrait of a Patriot: Selected Writings (The Hague: 1972), p. 245.
68. Mohammad Hatta, ‘Indonesia Free’ in Portrait of a Patriot: Selected Writings (The Hague: 1972), 258–59; see also Hatta, ‘Indonesië Vrij,’ 269.
69. Hatta, ‘Indonesia Free,’ 259.
70. Ibid., 266–67.
71. Ibid., 272.
72. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: 1967); Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: 1965).