Evaluative Readiness: The Motivational Nature of Automatic Evaluation

Handbook of Approach and Avoidance Motivation

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 289-306

  Ferguson, Melissa J ^a   Bargh, John A ^b  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85145856677     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203888148-37     Document Type: Chapter

References (158)

1. Aarts, H., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Hassin, R. (2004). Goal contagion:Perceiving is for pursuing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 23-37.
2. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211.
3. Albarracín, D., Johnson, B. T., & Zanna, M. P. (2005). The handbook of attitudes. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. Allport, G. W. (1935). Attitudes. In C. Murchison (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 798-844). Worcester, MA:Clark University Press.
5. Arnold, M. B. (1960). Emotion and personality. New York:Columbia University Press.
6. Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality selfconcept:the case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380-393.
7. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action:A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
8. Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. S. Ulerman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford Press.
9. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. J. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 1-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
10. Bargh, J. A. (2007). Social psychology and the unconscious:The automaticity of higher mental processes. New York:Psychology Press.
11. Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Troetschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
12. Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong:Desire for inter-personal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
13. Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. New York: Guilford Press.
14. Blair, I. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychological Review, 6, 242-261.
15. Bogardus, E. (1931). Fundamentals of social psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
16. Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2005) Indirectly measuring evaluations of several attitude objects in relation to a neutral reference point. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(4), 346-368.
17. Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475-82.
18. Brown, J. D. (1998). The self. New York: McGraw-Hill.
19. Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64(2), 123-152.
20. Cabanac, M. (1971). Physiological role of pleasure. Science, 173, 1103-1107.
21. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and selfregulation:A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer.
22. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
23. Castelli, L., Zogmaister, C., Smith, E. R., & Arcuri, L. (2004). On the automatic evaluation of social exemplars. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 373-387.
24. Chaiken, S., Bargh, J. A. (1993). Occurrence versus moderation of the automatic attitude activation effect: Reply to Fazio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 759-765.
25. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 464-478.
26. Chen, M., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate Behavioral predispositions to approach and avoid the stimulus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 215-224.
27. Clore, G. L., & Schnall, S. (2005). The influence of affect on attitude. In D. Alabarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 437-492). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
28. Corwin, G. (1921). Minor studies from the psychological laboratory of Cornell University. American Journal of Psychology, 32, 563-570.
29. Damasio, A. R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Orlando, FL:Harcourt.
30. Davidson, R., Scherer, K., & Goldsmith, H. (2003). Handbook of affective sciences. New York: Oxford University Press.
31. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and selfdetermination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
32. De Houwer, J. (2003). The extrinsic affective Simon task. Experimental Psychology, 50, 77-85.
33. De Houwer, A. (2005). Early bilingual acquisition: Focus on morphosyntax and the separate development hypothesis. In J. Kroll & A. De Groot (Eds.), The handbook of bilingualism (pp. 30-48). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
34. De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (1998). An affective variant of the Simon paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 45-61.
35. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
36. Doob, L. W. (1947). The behavior of attitudes. Psychological Review, 54, 135-156.
37. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68.
38. Dovidio, J. F., Mann, J., & Gaertner, S. L. (1989). Resistance to affirmative action: The implications of aversive racism. In F. A. Blanchard & F. J. Crosby (Eds.), Affirmative action in perspective (pp. 83-102). New York: SpringerVerlag.
39. Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P., & Rudman, L. (2005). On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Oxford, UK:Blackwell.
40. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540.
41. Duckworth, K. L., Bargh, J. A., Garcia, M., & Chaiken, S. (2002). The automatic evaluation of novel stimuli. Psychological Science, 13, 513-519.
42. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College.
43. Epley, N., & Caruso, E. M. (2004). Egocentric ethics. Social Justice Research, 17, 171-187.
44. Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441-1455.
45. Fazio, R. H. (1986). How do attitudes guide behavior? In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 204-243). New York: Guilford.
46. Fazio, R. H. (1989). On the power and functionality of attitudes:The role of attitude accessibility. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 153-179). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
47. Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 75-109). New York: Academic Press.
48. Fazio, R. H. (1993) Variability in the likelihood of automatic attitude activation: Data reanalysis and commentary on Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, and Pratto (1992). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 753-758.
49. Fazio, R. H. (2001). On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 1-27.
50. Fazio, R. H., Chen, J., McDonel, E. C., & Sherman, S. J. (1982). Attitude accessibility, attitude-behavior consistency and the strength of the object-evaluation association. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 339-357.
51. Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
52. Fazio, R. H., & Williams, C. J. (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relations: An investigation of the 1984 presidential election. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 505-514.
53. Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
54. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
55. Ferguson, M. J. (2007a). The automaticity of evaluation. Invited chapter in J. A. Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 219-264). Psychology Press.
56. Ferguson, M. J. (2007b). On the automatic evaluation of endstates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 596-611.
57. Ferguson, M. J. (2007c). On becoming ready to pursue a goal you don’t know you have: Effects of nonconscious goals on evaluative readiness. Unpublished manuscript.
58. Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2002). Sensitivity and flexibility:Exploring the knowledge function of automatic attitudes. In L. F. Barrett & P. Salovey (Eds.), The wisdom in feeling: Psychological processes in emotional intelligence (pp. 383-405). New York: Guilford Press.
59. Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing:Effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 557-572.
60. Fiske, S. T. (1982). Schema-triggered affect: Applications to social perception. In M. S. Clark & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Affect and cognition: The 17th annual Carnegie Symposium on cognition (pp. 55-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
61. Fitzsimons, G. M., & Bargh, J. A. (2003). Thinking of you:Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 148-163.
62. Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not unto temptation: Momentary allurements elicit automatic goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 296-309.
63. Forgas, J. (2003). Affective influences on attitudes and judgments. In R. Davidson, K. Scherer, & H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 596-618). New York: Oxford University Press.
64. Frijda, N. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge, MA: University Press.
65. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition:Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
66. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and selfconcept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
67. Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and selfconcept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.
68. Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., & Liu, T. J. (1989). Unconscious processing of dichoptically masked words. Memory and Cognition, 17, 35-47.
69. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwarz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition:The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
70. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and selfconcept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
71. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814-834.
72. Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 852-870). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
73. Henderson, M., Fujita, K., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2006). Transcending the “here:" The effect of spatial distance on social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 845-856.
74. Hermans, D., Crombez, G., & Eelen, P. (2000). Automatic attitude activation and efficiency: The fourth horseman of automaticity. Psychologica Belgica, 40, 3-22.
75. Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 133-168). New York: Guilford Press.
76. Higgins, E. T. & Brendl, C. M. (1996). Principles of judging valence: What makes events positive or negative? In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 28, pp. 95-160). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
77. Himmelfarb, S. (1993). The measurement of attitudes. In A. H. Eagly, & S. Chaiken (Eds.), The psychology of attitudes (pp. 23-84). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College.
78. Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit selfreport measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1369-1385.
79. Jones, E. E., & Sigall, H. (1971). The bogus pipeline: A new paradigm for measuring affect and attitude. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 349-364.
80. Jordan, C. H., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2003). “I love me… I love me not:" Implicit self-esteem, explicit selfesteem, and defensiveness. In S. J. Spencer, S. Fein, M. P. Zanna, & J. M. Olson (Eds.), Motivated social perception:The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 9, pp. 117-145). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
81. Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 893-905.
82. Kawakami, K., & Dovidio, J. F. (2001). Implicit stereotyping:How reliable is it? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 212-225.
83. Klauer, K. C., & Musch, J. (2003). Affective priming: Findings and theories. In J. Musch & K. C. Klauer (Eds.), The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion (pp. 7-49). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
84. Klauer, K. C., & Stern, E. (1992). How evaluations guide memory-based judgments: A two-process model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 186-206.
85. Klinger, M. R., Burton, P. C., & Pitts, G. S. (2000). Mechanisms of unconscious priming: I. Response competition, not spreading activation. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 441-455.
86. Koole, S. K., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001). What’s in a name: Implicit self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 614-627.
87. Krosnick, J. A., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2005). The measurement of attitudes. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 21-76). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
88. Lambert, A. J., Payne, B. K., Ramsey, S., & Shaffer, L. M. (2005). On the predictive validity of implicit attitude measures:The moderating effect of perceived group variability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 114-128.
89. Lang, P. J. (1984). Cognition in emotion: Concept and action. In C. Izard, J. Kagan, & R. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotion, Cognition and Behavior (pp. 196-226). New York: Cambridge University Press.
90. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377-395.
91. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivationalrelational theory of emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 819-834.
92. LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Touchstone.
93. Levy, B. R., & Schlesinger, M. J. (2005). When self-interest and age sterotypes collide: elders opposing increased funds for programs benefiting themselves. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 17(2), 25-39.
94. Lewin, K. (1926). Vorsatz, Wille, und Bedürfnis [Intention, will, and need]. Psychologische Forschung, 7, 330-385.
95. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York:McGraw-Hill.
96. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
97. Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65(3), 272-292.
98. Logan, G. D. (1980). Attention and automaticity in Stroop and priming tasks: Theory and data. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 523-553.
99. Marsh, K. L., Johnson, B. T., & Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J. (2001). Heart versus reason in condom use: Implicit versus explicit attitudinal predictors of sexual behavior. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 161-175.
100. McConahay, J. B. (1983). Modern racism and modern discrimination:The effects of race, racial attitudes, and context on simulated hiring decisions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 551-558.
101. McConahay, J. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism scale. In J. Dovidio (Ed.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91-125). San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
102. McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442.
103. McGuire, W. J. (1969). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 136-314). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
104. McGuire, W. J. (1985). Attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 233-346). New York: Random House.
105. Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227-234.
106. Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 297-326.
107. Morsella, E. (2005). The function of phenomenal states:Supramodular interaction theory. Psychological Review, 112(4), 1000-1021.
108. Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley.
109. Murphy, S. T., & Zajonc, R. B. (1993). Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 723-739.
110. Musch, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003). The psychology of evaluation:Affective processes in cognition and emotion. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
111. Neely, J. H. (1976). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Evidence for faciliatory and inhibitory processes. Memory and Cognition, 4, 648-654.
112. Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 106, 225-254.
113. Niedenthal, P. M. (1990). Implicit perception of affective information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 505-527.
114. Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 565-584.
115. Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The go/no-go association task. Social Cognition, 19(6), 625-666.
116. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Math =Male, Me = Female, therefore Math =/= me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 44-59.
117. Öhman, A. (1986). Face the beast and fear the face: Animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analysis of emotion. Psychophysiology, 23, 123-145.
118. Osgood, C. E. (1953). Method and theory in experimental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
119. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
120. Oettingen, G., Grant, H., Smith, P. K., Skinner, M., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2006). Nonconscious goal pursuit: Acting in an explanatory vacuum. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 668-675.
121. Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277-293.
122. Pratkanis, A. R., Breckler, S. J., & Greenwald, A. G. (1989). Attitude structure and function. New Jersey: Erlbaum.
123. Petty, R. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (1995). Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences. Mahway, NJ: Erlbaum.
124. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
125. Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: Retention without remembering. American Psychologist, 45(9), 1043-1056.
126. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.
127. Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., & Fazio, R. H. (1992). On the orienting value of attitudes: Attitude accessibility as a determinant of an object’s attraction of visual attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 198-211.
128. Sarnoff, I. (1960). Psychoanalytic theory and social attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 251-279.
129. Sears, D. O. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism:Profiles in controversy (pp. 53-84). New York: Plenum.
130. Schwarz, N., & Bohner, G. (2001). The construction of attitudes. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intraindividual processes (Vol. 1, pp. 436-457). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
131. Shah, J. (2003). The motivational looking glass: How signifi-cant others implicitly affect goal appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 424-439.
132. Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83(6), 1261-1280.
133. Shah, J. Y., Kruglanski, A. W., & Friedman, R. (2002). A goal systems approach to self-regulation. In M.P. Zanna, J. M. Olson, & C. Seligman (Eds.), The Ontario symposium on personality and social psychology (pp. 247-276). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
134. Sherman, S. J., Presson, C. C., Chassin, L., Rose, J. S., & Koch, K. (2003). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward cigarette smoking: The effects of context and motivation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 13-39.
135. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
136. Smith, P. K., & Trope, Y. (2006). You focus on the forest when you’re in charge of the trees: Power priming and abstract information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 578-596.
137. Smith, M. B., Bruner, J. S., & White, R. W. (1956). Opinions and personality. New York: Wiley.
138. Squire, L. R., & Kandel, E. R. (1999). Memory: From mind to molecules. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.
139. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1600-1672.
140. Swim, J. K., Aiken, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.
141. Tesser, A., & Martin, L. (1996). The psychology of evaluation. In E. T. Higgins, & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 400-432). New York: Guilford Press.
142. Thurstone, L. L. (1927). Psychological analysis. American Journal of Psychology, 38, 368-398.
143. Thurstone, L. L. (1931). Measurement of social attitudes. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 26, 249-269.
144. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110(3), 403-421.
145. Tulving, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Handbook of memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
146. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987). What do people think they’re doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 3-15.
147. von Hippel, W., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Vargas, P. (1997). The Linguistic Intergroup Bias as an implicit indicator of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 490-509.
148. Wegner, D. M., Vallacher, R. R., Kiersted, G., & Dizadji, D. (1986). Action identification in the emergence of social behavior. Social Cognition, 4, 18-38.
149. Wentura, D. (1999). Activation and inhibition of affective information:Evidence for negative priming in the evaluation task. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 65-91.
150. Wentura, D. (2000). Dissociative affective and associative priming effects in the lexical decision task: Yes versus no responses to word targets reveal evaluative judgmental tendencies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 456-469.
151. Wicklund, R. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic selfcompletion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
152. Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101-126.
153. Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C., & Wilbarger, J. L. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 121-135.
154. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262-274.
155. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 815-827.
156. Young, P. T. (1959). The role of affective processes in learning and motivation. Psychological Review, 66, 104-125.
157. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking. Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.
158. Zajonc, R. B. (2000). Feeling and thinking: Closing the debate over the independence of affect. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 31-58). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.