Programmed Technologies

Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, Third Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 187-197

  Lockee, Barbara B ^a   Larson, Miriam B ^a   Burton, John K ^a   Michael Moore, D ^a  

^a VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Programmed technologies: Process based methods and approaches to support learning and instruction, often represented in the form of algorithms and implemented in computer software.

Indexed keywords

EID: 85144985553     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203880869-18     Document Type: Chapter

References (110)

1. Anderson, R. C. (1967). Educational psychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 18, 129-164.
2. Angell, D. and Lumsdaine, A. A. (1961). Prompted and unprompted trials versus prompted trials only in paired associate learning. In Student Response in Programmed Instruction, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine, pp. 389-398. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council.
3. Bernard, C. (1865). Introduction a l’etude de la medecine experimentale. New York: Bailliere Bros.
4. Binder, C. and Watkins, C. L. (1990). Precision teaching and direct instruction: measurably superior instructional technology in schools. Perform. Improve. Q., 3(4), 74-96.
5. Briggs, L. J. (1960). Two self-instructional devices. In Teaching and Programmed Learning, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine and R. Glaser, pp. 299-304. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
6. Briggs, L. J., Goldbeck, R. A., Campbell, V. N., and Nichols, D. G. (1962). Experimental results regarding form of response, size of step, and individual differences in automated programs. In Programmed Learning and Computer-Based Instruction, edited by J. E. Coulson, pp. 86-98. New York: Wiley.
7. Burns, H. L. and Capps, C. G. (1988). Foundations of intelligent tutoring systems: an introduction. In Foundations of Intelligent Tutoring Systems, edited by M. C. Polson and J. J. Richardson, pp. 1-19. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
8. Carr, W. J. (1959). A functional analysis of self-instructional devices. In Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine and R. Glaser, pp. 540-562. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
9. Cook, J. O. (1961). From audience participation to paired-associate learning and response analysis in paired-associate learning experiments. In Student Response in Programmed Instruction, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine, pp. 351-373. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council.
10. Cook, J. O. and Spitzer, M. E. (1960). Supplementing report: prompting versus confirmation in paired-associate learning. J. Exp. Psychol., 59, 257-276.
11. Coulson, J. E. and Silberman, H. F. (1960). Effects of three variables in a teaching machine. J. Educ. Psychol., 51, 135-143.
12. Coulson, J. E., Estavan, D. P., Melaragno, R. J., and Silberman, H. F. (1962). Effects of branching in a computer controlled autoinstructional device. J. Appl. Psychol., 46, 389-392.
13. Detambel, M. H. and Stolurow, L. M. (1956). Stimulus sequence and concept learning. J. Exp. Psychol., 51, 34-40.
14. Deutsch, W. (1992). Teaching machines, programming, computers, and instructional technology: the roots of performance technology. Perform. Instruct., 31(2), 14-20.
15. Dick, W., Carey, L., and Carey, J. O. (2000). The Systematic Design of Instruction, 5th ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
16. Duncan, K. D. (1971). Fading of prompts in learning sequences. Programmed Learn. Educ. Technol., 8(2), 111-115.
17. Eigen, L.D. (1963). High school student reactions to programmed instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 44, 282-285.
18. Engelmann, M. D. (1963). Construction and evaluation of programmed materials in biology classroom use. Am. Biol. Teacher, 25, 212-214.
19. Evans, J. L., Glaser, R., and Homme, L. E. (1959). A Preliminary Investigation of Variation in Properties of Verbal Learning Sequences of the Teaching Machine Type. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Atlantic City, NJ.
20. Farmer, J., Lachter, G. D., Blaustein, J. J., and Cole, B. K. (1972). The role of proctoring in personalized instruction. J. Appl. Behav. Anal., 5, 401-404.
21. Feldhusen, J. F., Ramharter, H., and Birt, A. T. (1962). The teacher versus programmed learning. Wisconsin J. Educ., 95(3), 8-10.
22. Fernald, P. S., Chiseri, M. H., Lawson, D. W., Scroggs, G. F., and Riddell, J. C. (1975). Systematic manipulation of student pacing, the perfection requirement, and contact with a teaching assistant in an introductory psychology course. Teach. Psychol., 2(4), 147-151.
23. Ferster, C. D. and Sapon, S. M. (1958). An application of recent developments in psychology to the teaching of German. Harvard Educ. Rev., 28, 58-69.
24. Foshay, R. (1998). Instructional Philosophy and Strategic Direction of the PLATO System, ERIC Document Reproduction Service ED 464 603. Edina, MN: PLATO.
25. Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., and Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design, 4th ed. New York: Harper Collins.
26. Gagné, R. M. and Dick, W. (1962). Learning measures in a selfinstructional program in solving equations. Psychol. Rep., 10, 131-146.
27. Galanter, E. H. (1959). Automatic Teaching: The State of the Art. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
28. Gavurin, E. I. and Donahue, V. M. (1960). Logical Sequence and Random Sequence Teaching-Machine Programs. Burlington, MA: RCA.
29. Glaser, R., Ed., (1965). Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
30. Gropper, G. L. (1966). Programming Visual Presentations for Procedural Learning. Studies in Televised Instruction. Pittsburgh, PA: American Institute for Research in Behavioral Sciences.
31. Gustafson, K. and Branch, R. M. (2002). What is instructional design? In Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, edited by R. A. Reiser and J. A. Dempsey, pp. 16-25. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
32. Hartley, J. (1974). Programmed Instruction 1954-1974: a review. Programmed Learn. Educ. Technol., 11, 278-291.
33. Hartley, J. and Davies, I. (1978). Programmed learning and educational technology. In Adult Learning: Psychological Research and Applications, edited by M. Howe, pp. 161-183. New York: John Wiley and Sons.*
34. Hickey, A. E. and Newton, J. M. (1964). The Logical Basis of Teaching: The Effect of Subconcept Sequence on Learning. Newbury Port, MA: Entelek.
35. Holland, J. G. (1959). A teaching machine program in psychology. In Automatic Teaching: The State of the Art, edited by E. Galanter, pp. 69-82. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
36. Holland, J. G. (1960). Design and use of a teaching machine and program. Teachers Coll. Rec., 63, 56-65.
37. Holland, J. G. (1965). Research on programming variables. In Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, Vol. II, edited by R. Glaser, pp. 66-177. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
38. Holland, J. G., and Porter, D. (1961). The influence of repetition of incorrectly answered items in a teaching-machine program. J. Exp. Anal. Behav., 4, 305-307.
39. Hughes, J. E., Ed., (1963). Programmed Learning: A Critical Evaluation. Chicago, IL: Educational Methods.
40. Hursh, D. E. (1976). Personalized systems of instruction: what do the data indicate? J. Personalized Instruct., 1, 91-105.
41. Johnson, K. R. and Ruskin, R. S. (1977). Behavioral Instruction: An Evaluative Review. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
42. Jones, H. L. and Sawyer, M. O. (1949). A new evaluation instrument. J. Educ. Res., 42, 381-385.
43. Joyce, B. and Moxley, R. A. (1988). August Dvorak (1894-1975): early expressions of applied behavior analysis and precision teaching. Behav. Anal., 11(1), 33-40.
44. Keisler, E. R. (1959). The development of understanding in arithmetic by a teaching machine. J. Educ. Psychol., 50, 247-253.
45. Keller, F. S. (1968). Good-bye, teacher…. J. Appl. Behav. Anal., 1, 78-89.
46. Keller, F. S. (1977). Summers and Sabbaticals: Selected Papers on Psychology and Education. Champaign, IL: Research Press.*
47. Keller, F. S. and Sherman, J. G. (1974). The Keller Plan Handbook: Essays on a Personalized System of Instruction. Menlo Park, CA: W.A. Benjamin.*
48. Kemp, J., Morrison, G. R., and Ross, S. M. (1998). Designing Effective Instruction, 2nd ed. New York: Merrill.
49. Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. L. C., and Smith, B. B. (1976). Research on the personalized system of instruction. J. Programmed Learn. Educ. Technol., 13, 23-30.
50. Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. L. C., and Cohen, P. A. (1979). A metaanalysis of outcome studies of Keller’s personalized system of instruction. Am. Psychol., 34(4), 307-318.*
51. Kulik, C. C., Kulik, J. A., and Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: a meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res., 60(2), 269-299.
52. Leith, G. O. M. (1966). A Handbook of Programmed Learning, 2nd ed., Educational Review Occasional Publication Number 1. Birmingham, U.K.: University of Birmingham.
53. Lindsley, O. R. (1971). From Skinner to precision teaching: the child knows best. In Let’s Try Doing Something Else Kind of Thing, edited by J. B. Jordan and L. S. Robbins, pp. 1-11. Arlington, VA: Council on Exceptional Children.
54. Lindsley, O. R. (1966). Is fluency free-operant response-response chaining? Behav. Anal., 19, 211-224.
55. Lindsley, O. R. (1968). Training Parents and Teachers to Precisely Manage Children’s Behavior. Address presented at the Mott Children’s Health Center, Flint, MI.
56. Lindsley, O. R. (1990). Precision teaching: by teachers for children. Teaching Exceptional Children, Spring, 10-15.
57. Lindsley, O. R. (1991). Precision teaching’s unique legacy from B. F. Skinner. J. Behav. Educ., 1(2), 253-266.*
58. Lindsley, O. R. (1992). Precision teaching: discoveries and effects. J. Appl. Behav. Anal., 25(1), 51-57.*
59. Lindsley, O. R. (1996). The four free-operant freedoms. Behav. Anal., 19, 199-210.
60. Lockee, B. B., Moore, D. M., and Burton, J. K. (2004). Programmed instruction. In Handbook for Research for Educational Communications and Technology, 2nd ed., edited by D. Jonassen, pp. 545-569. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.*
61. Lumsdaine, A. A. (1962). Experimental research on instructional devices and materials. In Training Research and Education, edited by R. Glaser, pp. 247-294. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh.
62. Lumsdaine, A. A. (1965). Assessing the effectiveness of instructional programs. In Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning. Vol. II. Data and Directions, edited by R. Glaser, pp. 267-320. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
63. Lumsdaine, A. A. and Glaser, R., Eds. (1960). Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.*
64. Lysaught, J. P. and Williams, C. M. (1963). A Guide to Programmed Instruction. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
65. Maccoby, N. and Sheffield, F. D. (1958). Theory and experimental research on the teaching of complex sequential procedures by alternative demonstration and practice. In Symposium on Air Force Human Engineering, Personnel and Training Research, edited by G. Finch and F. Cameron. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council.
66. MacDonald-Ross, M. (1973). Behavioral objectives: a critical review. Instruct. Sci., 2, 1-52.
67. McDonald, J. K., Yanchar, S. C., and Osguthorpe, R. T. (2005). Learning from programmed instruction: examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev., 53(2), 84-98.
68. Melaragno, R. J. (1960). Effect of negative reinforcement in an automated teaching setting. Psychol. Rep., 7, 381-384.
69. Meyer, S. R. (1960). Report on the initial test of a junior highschool vocabulary program. In Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine and R. Glaser, pp. 229-246. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
70. Miller, H. R. (1965). An Investigation into Sequencing and Prior Information Variables in a Programmed Evaluation Unit for Junior High School Mathematics. Paper presented at Department of Audiovisual Instruction Meeting, Milwaukee, WI.
71. Miller, H. R. (1969). Sequencing and prior information in linear programmed instruction. AV Commun. Rev., 17(1), 63-76.
72. Neidermeyer, F., Brown, J., and Sulzen, R. (1968). The Effects of Logical, Scrambled and Reverse Order Sequences on the Learning of a Series of Mathematical Tasks at the Math Grade Level. Paper presented at the meeting of the California Educational Research Association, March, Oakland, CA.
73. Ofiesh, G. D. and Meirhenry, W. C., Eds. (1964). Trends in Programmed Instruction, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
74. Pavlov, I. P. (1965). Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, trans.). London: Oxford University Press (original work published in 1927).
75. Porter, D. (1957). A critical review of a portion of the literature on teaching devices. Harvard Educ. Rev., 27, 126-147.
76. Potts, L., Eshleman, J. W., and Cooper, J. O. (1993). Ogden R. Lindsley and the historical development of precision teaching. Behav. Anal., 16, 177-189.
77. Pressey, S. L. (1926). A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores-and teaches. School Society, 23, 373-376.
78. Pressey, S. L. (1950). Development and appraisal of devices providing immediate automatic scoring of objective tests and concomitant self-instruction. J. Psychol., 29, 417-447.
79. Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology. Part II. A history of instructional design. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev., 49(2), 57-67.
80. Reiser, R. A. and Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
81. Rigney, J. W. and Fry, E. B. (1961). Current teaching-machine programs and programming techniques. Audiovisual Commun. Rev., 9(3, Suppl. 3), 7-121.
82. Robin, A. R. (1976). Behavioral instruction in the college classroom. Rev. Educ. Res., 46, 313-354.
83. Roe, A. A. (1962). A comparison of branching methods for programmed instruction. J. Educ. Res., 55, 407-416.
84. Ryan, B. A. (1974). Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction: An Appraisal. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
85. Severin, D. G. (1960). Appraisal of special tests and procedures used with self-scoring instructional testing devices. In Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine and R. Glaser, pp. 678-680. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.
86. Sherman, J. G. (1974). The theory behind PSI. In PSI: Personalized System of Instruction, edited by J. G. Sherman, pp. 223-225. Menlo Park, CA: W.A. Benjamin.
87. Sherman, J. G. (1992). Reflections on PSI: good news and bad. J. Appl. Behav. Anal., 25(1), 59-64.
88. Silberman, H. F., Melaragno, R. J., Coulson, J. E., and Estavan, D. (1961). Fixed sequence versus branching auto-instructional methods. J. Educ. Psychol., 52, 166-172.
89. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
90. Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educ. Rev., 24, 86-97.*
91. Skinner, B. F. (1958a). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969-977.*
92. Skinner, B. F. (1958b). Reinforcement today. Am. Psychol., 13, 94-99.
93. Skinner, B. F. (1961). Why we need teaching machines. Harvard Educ. Rev., 31, 377-398.
94. Skinner, B. F. (1968a). The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.*
95. Skinner, B. F. (1968b). Reflections on a decade of teaching machines. In Instructional Process and Media Innovation, edited by R. A. Weisgerber, pp. 404-417. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
96. Skinner, B. F. (1986). Programmed instruction revisited. Phi Delta Kappan, 68(2), 103-110.
97. Smith, K. U. and Smith, M. F. (1966). Cybernetic Principles of Learning and Educational Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
98. Smith, N. H. (1962). The teaching of elementary statistics by the conventional classroom method versus the method of programmed instruction. J. Educ. Res., 55, 417-420.
99. Smith, P. L. and Ragan, T. J. (1999). Instructional Design, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
100. Spector, J. M. and Ohrazda, C. (2004). Automating instructional design: approaches and limitations. In Handbook for Research for Educational Communications and Technology, 2nd ed., edited by D. Jonassen, pp. 685-699. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
101. Stolurow, L. M. (1961). Teaching by Machine. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
102. Stolurow, L. M. (1963). Programmed instruction for the mentally retarded. Rev. Educ. Res., 33, 126-133.
103. Taber, J. I., Glaser, R., and Schaefer, H. H. (1965). Learning and programmed Instruction. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
104. Taveggia, T. C. (1976). Personalized instruction: a summary of comparative research 1967-1974. Am. J. Physics, 44, 1028-1033.
105. van Merriënboer, J. J. G. and de Croock, M. B. M. (1992). Strategies for computer-based programming instruction: program completion vs. program generation. J. Educ. Comput. Res., 8, 365-394.
106. van Merriënboer, J. J. G. and Krammer, H. P. M. (1990). The ‘completion strategy’ in programming instruction: theoretical and empirical support. In Research on Instruction, edited by S. Dijkstra, B. H. M. van Hout-Wolters, and P. C. van der Sijde, pp. 45-61. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
107. Vargas, E. A. and Vargas, J. (1992). Programmed instruction and teaching machines. In Designs for Excellence in Education: The Legacy of B. F. Skinner, edited by R. P. West and L. A. Hamerlynck, pp. 33-69. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.*
108. Wager, W. W. and Broderick, W. A. (1974). Three objective rules of sequencing applied to programmed learning materials. AV Commun. Rev., 22(4), 423-438.
109. West, R. P. and Young, K. R. (1992). Precision teaching. In Designs for Excellence in Education: The Legacy of B. F. Skinner, edited by R. P. West and L. A. Hamerlynck, pp. 113-146. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
110. Ysewijn, P. (1993). A more or less subjective view on the history of CAI. CBT Forum, 2(3), 35-54 (http://www.mypage.bluewin.ch/Ysewijn/DOC/History_of_CAI.PDF).