Asean, quo vadis? Domestic coalitions and regional co-operation

Contemporary Southeast Asia

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 30-53

  Solingen, Etel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85121100142     PISSN: 0129797X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1355/CS21-1B     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. See, for instance, Leszek Buszynski, “ASEAN Security Dilemmas,” Survival 34, no. 4 (1992/3): 90–107. A Neo-Realist perspective is also included in Etel Solingen and Thien Nguyen, “Explaining ASEAN: Neorealist Predicament or International Cluster?” (Paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, 17–22 March 1998).
2. Amitav Acharya, “A New Regional Order in South-East Asia: ASEAN in the Post-Cold War Era,” Adelphi Paper 279 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993): 1–91.
3. This section abstracts from a fuller version of the coalitional argument in Etel Solingen, Regional Orders at Century’s Dawn: Global and Domestic Influences on Grand Strategy (Princeton University Press, 1998).
4. For a comprehensive analysis of the domestic politics that led the key ASEAN states to favour economic openness, see Alasdair Bowie and Danny Unger, The Politics of Open Economies: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
5. Muthiah Alagappa, Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Authority (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
6. A moderate return to inward-looking policies in the 1970s was followed by a new wave of liberalization and privatization in the 1980s. See Andrew MacIntyre, “Power, Prosperity, and Patrimonialism: Business and Government in Indonesia,” in his edited volume Business and Government in Industrialising Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), pp. 244–67.
7. Michael Leifer, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1983), p. 117; Khong Yuen Foong, “ASEAN and the Southeast Asian Security Complex”, in Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World, edited by D. Lake and P. Morgan (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), pp. 318– 42; Soekarno’s acronym Nasakom reflected one of his two supportive coalitions (nationalist, religious, and communist forces), the other being the armed forces. See also Jusuf Wanandi, “The Correlation Between Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy in Indonesia,” in Asia and the Major Powers: Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy, edited by R.A. Scalapino, S. Sato, J. Wanandi, and S. Han (University of California Berkeley, Institute of East Asian Studies, 1988), pp. 181–99.
8. Data on trade openness for all ASEAN states are from Heston and Summers, “The Penn World Table (Mark 5): An Expanded Set of International Comparisons, 1950– 1988”, Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, no. 9 (May 1991): 327–68; and 1995 update in National Bureau of Economic Research (Cambridge, Mass., January 1995)
9. Chan Heng Chee, “Singapore: Domestic Structure and Foreign Policy,” in Asia and the Major Powers: Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy, edited by Scalapino et al., p. 289.
10. Edmund T. Gomez and Jomo K.S., Malaysia’s Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits (Cambridge University Press, 1997); and K.S. Nathan, “Malaysia: Reinventing the Nation,” in Asian Security Practice: Material and Ideational Influences, edited by Muthiah Alagappa (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 513–48.
11. D. Geoffrey and S.D. Stafford, “Malaysia’s New Economic Policy and the Global Economy: The Evolution of Ethnic Accommodation,” Pacific Review 10, no. 4 (1997): 556–80.
12. Quoted in Amitav Acharya, “Regionalism and Regime Security in the Third World: Comparing the Origins of ASEAN and the GCC”, in The Insecurity Dilemma – National Security of Third World States, edited by Brian L. Job (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992), p. 152.
13. Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 314.
14. On further regional comparisons, see Bowie and Unger, op. cit, p. 10. Malaysia’s government deficits and final consumption are higher than the rest, and Singapore’s figures are the lowest.
15. Data on military expenditures (MILEX) in this section is from SIPRI Yearbooks (various years, 1975–95) and IISS, The Military Balance (1995/96), pp. 266–67. For cross-regional comparisons, see Solingen, op.cit., pp. 28–29, 137, 166, 229–30. On transparency, see Arms, Transparency and Security in South-East Asia, edited by Bates Gill and J.N. Mak (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
16. Barry Buzan and Gerald Segal, “Rethinking East Asian Security,” Survival 36, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 3–22. See also Desmond Ball, “Arms and Affluence: Military Acquisitions in the Asia-Pacific Region,” International Security 18, no. 3 (1993/4): 78–112; Alagappa, op.cit., pp. 631–33; Andrew Mack and Pauline Kerr, “The Evolving Security Discourse in the Asia-Pacific,” Washington Quarterly 18, no. 1 (1994): 131; and Chin Kin Wah, ed., Defence Spending in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987).
17. Acharya, “Regionalism”. On the synergies between a stable domestic political order, economic growth, and regional co-operation in ASEAN, see Michael Leifer, “The ASEAN Regional Forum,” Adelphi Paper 302 (1996): 14–15; Donald K. Emmerson, “Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore: A Regional Security Core?” in Southeast Asian Security in the New Millennium, edited by Richard J. Ellings and Sheldon W. Simon (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), pp. 62–63; and Dewi Fortuna Anwar, “Indonesia: Domestic Priorities Define National Security,” in Alagappa, op.cit., pp. 477–512.
18. Quoted in Nathan, op. cit., p. 533.
19. Quoted in Leifer, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy. p. 162.
20. Chia Siow Yue, “The Deepening and Widening of ASEAN,” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 1, no. 1 (1996): 59–78. Ross Garnaut, Open Regionalism and Trade Liberalization (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1996); Linda Y.C. Lim, “ASEAN: New Modes of Economic Cooperation,” in Southeast Asia in the New World Order, edited by David Wurfel and Bruce Burton (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 19–35.
21. Zakaria Haji Ahmad, “Malaysian Foreign Policy and Domestic Politics: Looking Outward and Moving Inward?” in Asia and the Major Powers: Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy, edited by Scalapino et al., pp. 256–79.
22. Susan L. Shirk, “Asia-Pacific Regional Security: Balance of Power or Concert of Powers? in Regional Orders: Building Security on a New World, edited by Lake and Morgan, pp. 245–70; Mely Caballero-Anthony, “Mechanisms of Dispute Settlement: The ASEAN Experience,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 20, no. 1 (April 1998): 38– 66.
23. Vietnam’s defence expenditures, in constant 1993 dollars, have since remained virtually the same, from US$789 million in 1990 to US$865 million in 1995 (SIPRI Yearbook 1996).
24. “Survey: Asia. A Billion Consumers,” The Economist 329, no. 7835 (30 October 1993).
25. Kishore Mahbubani, “An Asia-Pacific Consensus,” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 5 (September/October 1997): 157; and “The Pacific Impulse,” Survival 37, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 108.
26. For a comprehensive list, see Ball, op.cit., pp. 88–89; and Sheldon W. Simon, The ASEAN States and Regional Security (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1982).
27. Richard Betts, “Vietnam’s Strategic Predicament,” Survival 37, no. 3 (1995): 72; Alan E. Goodman, “Vietnam and ASEAN: Who Would Have Thought It Possible?,” Asian Survey 36, no. 6 (1996): 596.
28. Scott Snyder, “The South China Sea Dispute: Prospects for Preventive Diplomacy,” (United States Institute of Peace, Special Report, August 1996); Sheldon W. Simon, “Security Prospects in Southeast Asia: Collaborative Efforts and the ASEAN Regional Forum” (International Studies Association Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, 12–17 March 1998); and Derek McDougall, The International Politics of the New Asia Pacific (Lynne Rienner, 1997), p. 216.
29. Buszynski, op. cit., p. 97.
30. Alan S. Whiting, “ASEAN Eyes China”, Asian Survey 37, no. 4 (1997): 306–7.
31. Acharya, “A New Regional Order”, pp. 43–44.
32. Denny Roy, “The China Threat Issue,” Asian Survey 36, no. 8 (1996): 759.
33. Leifer, “The ASEAN Regional Forum,” p. 18; Michael G. Gallagher, “China’s Illusory Threat to the South China Sea,” International Security 19, no. 1 (1994): 185.
34. Betts, op. cit., p. 67.
35. Miles Kahler, “Institution-Building in the Pacific,” in Pacific Cooperation: Building Economic and Security Regimes in the Asia-Pacific Region, edited by Andrew Mack and John Ravenhill (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), pp. 1–16.
36. Quoted in Amitav Acharya, “The Association of Southeast Asian Nations:‘Security Community’ or ‘Defense Community’?,” Pacific Affairs 64 (1991): 173.
37. Khong, op. cit., pp. 330–33.
38. Malcolm Chalmers, Confidence-Building in South-East Asia (Westview Press, 1996).
39. Leifer, “The ASEAN Regional Forum.” For an even more skeptical view of the ARF and China’s intentions, see Robyn Lim, “The ASEAN Regional Forum: Building on Sand,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 20, no. 2 (August 1998): 115–36.
40. Gallagher, op. cit., p. 173.
41. Quoted from Acharya, “The Association,” p.171.
42. Paul Dibb, David D. Hale, and Peter Prince, “The Strategic Implications of Asia’s Economic Crisis,” Survival 40, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 15; and Anwar, op. cit., pp. 477–512.
43. Emmerson, op. cit., p. 38.
44. Solingen, op. cit., pp. 47, 57, 58, 61.
45. On the potential for backlash responses in the aftermath of IMF-imposed programmes, see Richard Higgott, “The International Relations of the Asian Economic Crisis: A Study in the Politics of Resentment” (Paper presented at a conference on “From Miracle to Meltdown: The End of Asian Capitalism?”, organized by Murdoch University, Asia Research Center, 20–22 August 1998). On the weakness of populist challenges in East and Southeast Asian countries prior to the crisis, see Haggard and Kaufman, op. cit., p. 455.
46. Derek da Cunha, “Asian Crisis Sharpens Siege Mentality”, Sunday Times (Singapore), 18 October 1998, p. 43.
47. On responses to the economic crisis, see John Funston, “ASEAN: Out of Its Depth?” Contemporary Southeast Asia 20, no. 1 (April 1998): 29–31; and Higgott, op. cit., pp. 1–34.
48. Quoted in Dibb et al., op. cit., p. 19.
49. Jose T. Almonte, “Ensuring Security the ‘ASEAN Way’ ”, Survival 39, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 82.
50. Funston, op. cit., pp. 22–37.