The Poles: Western aspirations, eastern minorities

Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics And International Relations In The Former Soviet Union

Volumn , Issue , 2018, Pages 179-208

  Snyder, Tim ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 85119234502     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780429498732-8     Document Type: Chapter

References (118)

1. Hieronim Kubiak, “Polacy i Polonia w ZSRR: kwestie terminologiczne, perodyzacja, rozmieszczenie przestrenne, szacunki ilościowe, " in Hieronim Kubiak et al., eds., Mniejszości Polskie i Polonia w ZSRR (Wroclaw: Ossolineum, 1992), especially pp. 20-21.
2. See M. Dovnar-Zapolsky, “The Basis of White Russia’s State Individuality, " Hrodna 1919, reprinted in Vitaut Kipel and Zora Kipel, Byelorussian Statehood (New York: Byelorussia Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1988), 47-48.
3. See J. S. Pawlow, “Represje wobec osadników polskich w zachodnich odw odach Białorusi, " in Małgorzata Giżejewska and Tomasz Strzembosz, eds., Społeczeństwo bialoruskie, litewskie i polskie na ziemach północno-wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej w latach 1939-1941 (Warsaw: Instytut Studiów Politycznych, 1995), 370;
4. Piotr Eberhardt, “Przemiany narodowościowe na Białorusi, " Przegląd wschodni 2, no. 3 (1992-93): 541.
5. For sources related to the “repatriation” and dispersal of Ukrainians, see Volodymyr Serhiichyk, Etnichni mezhi i derzhavnii kordon Ukrainy (Ternopil’: Vydavnytstvo Ternopil’, 1996), 143ff.
6. Antonina Kłoskowska, Kultury narodowe u korzeni (Warsaw: PWN, 1996), 300.
7. Mikołaj Iwanow, “Stan i potrzeby badań nad polską mniejszością narodową w Związku Radzieckim, " in Kubiak et al., eds., Mniejszości Polskie, 35.
8. For accounts of oppositionists, see Jacek Kuron, Wiara i wina: do i od komunizmu (London: Aneks, 1989), 347;
9. Adam Michnikin Roman Solchanyk, Ukraine: Front Chernobyl to Sovereignty. A Collection of Interviews (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), 59-64.
10. For western summaries, see Ilya Prizel, “The Influence of Ethnicity on Foreign Policy: The Case of Ukraine, " in Roman Szporluk, ed., National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 108;
11. Stephen Burant, “Overcoming the Past: Polish-Lithuanian Relations, 1990-1995, " Journal of Baltic Studies 37, no. 4 (1996): 313-18.
12. For further references, see Włodzim ierz Brylewski, “Konika białoruska, " Kultura, no. 416 (May 1982): 130;
13. Józef Darski, “Kronika białoruska, " Kultura, no. 471 (December 1986): 96;
14. Antoni Pospielaszki, “Kościół katolicki i bialoruskie odrodzenie, " Kultura, no. 505 (October 1989): 99.
15. For influential examples see Kazimierz Podlaski, Białorusini, Litwini, Ukraińcy, which was published illegally several times from 1983 and received Solidarity’s cultural award in 1985;
16. Juliusz Mieroszewski, “Polska ‘ostpolitik, '" Kultura, no. 309 (June 1973);
17. Juliusz Mieroszewski, “Rosyjski ‘kom pleks polski’ i obszar ULB, " Kultura, no. 324 (September 1974).
18. See also Józef Darski, “Kronika białoruska, " Kultura, no. 471 (December 1986): 95-97.
19. For some survey data which is consistent with this observation, see “Spoleczenstwo polskie wobec otwartych granic, " CBOS serwis informacyjny, March 1993, p. 12.
20. For the personal recollections of eastern Poles, see Thomas Szayna, “Ethnic Poles in Lithuania and Belarus: Current Situation and Migration Potential, " Rand Corporation Report, August 1993, p. 26;
21. Andrzej Ratkiewicz, “Cztery tysiące studentów, " Rzeczpospolita, April 16, 1996, p. 3.
22. For example, “Współpraca na Zachodzie, życzliwość na Wschodzie, " Rzeczpospolita, April 30-May 1, 1993;
23. Janina Paradowska, “Wspólnota Polska, " Polityka, November 2, 1996, p. 6.
24. V. A. Tishkov, ed., Narody Rossii: entsiklopediia (Moscow: Bol’shaia Rossiiskaia Entsiklopediia, 1994), 268.
25. On Polish language and culture in Kazakhstan, see Tadeusz Samborski, “Polonia sowiecka” (interview with Polish consul-general Rom an Brzoż), Kultura, nos. 496-97 (January-February 1989): 108-12.
26. See for example Jan Skorzyński, “Zpolakam i na Syberii, " Rzeczpospolita, April 12, 1996, p. 6.
27. Andrzej Kaczyński, “Lekcja polskiego, " Rzeczpospolita, August 12, 1996, p. 3.
28. The Poles are not even mentioned in demographic studies, such as M. Kh. Asylbekov and A. B. Galiev, Sotsialʼno-demograficheskie protsessy v Kazakhstane (1917-1980) (Almaty: Gylym, 1991).
29. On Polish teachers in Kazakhstan, see Barbara Pietkiewicz, “Pan Jurek, bez nas zginiesz!" Polityka, August 24, 1996, pp. 24-25.
30. “Kazakhstan Poles Want to Return to Ukraine, " Warsaw PAP in English, March 23, 1992, in FBIS-EEU, March 27, 1992, p. 27;
31. “Poles in Kazakhstan Seek Return to Homeland, " Warsaw PAP in English, August 10, 1992, in FBIS-EEU, August 14, 1992, p. 14.
32. Eryk Jekabson, “Stosunki polsko-łotewskie na przestrzeni dziejów, " in Edward Walewander, ed., Polacy na Lótwie (Lublin: Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski, 1993), 23-43.
33. Wanda Krukowska, “Działalność Związku Polaków na Łótwie, " in Walewander, ed., Polacy na Łótwie, 303-4.
34. For an excellent history of Polish colonization of Ukrainian lands, see Daniel Beauvois, La bataille de la terre en Ukraine, 1863-1914 (Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1993).
35. Kubiak, “Polacy i Polonia, " 30.
36. For a personal account of the felt absence of Polishness in Lviv, see Krzysztof Masłoń, “Lwowskie klimaty, " Rzeczpospolita, April 6-8, 1996, pp. 6-8.
37. Bohdan Osadczuk, “To były najszcȩśliwsze dnie w moim życiu” (interview with Polish ambassador in Kyiv, Jerzy Kozakiewicz), Kultura, nos. 532-33 (January-February 1992): 21;
38. Susan Stewart, “Ukraine’s Policy toward its Ethnic Minorities, " RFE/RL Research Report, September 10, 1993, pp. 55-62.
39. “Pomoc día Polaków, " Rzeczpospolita, October 10, 1996, p. 6.
40. For a sophisticated example, see Algirdas Budreckis, “Demographic Problems of Vilnius Province, " in Algirdas Budreckis, ed., Eastern Lithuania: A Collection of Historical and Ethnographic Studies (Chicago: Lithuanian Association of the Vilnius Region, 1985), 314-15.
41. Józef Darski, “Kronika litewska, białoruska i ukraińska, " Kultura, no. 512 (May 1990): 87-88;
42. Stephen Burant, “Belarus and the Belarusian Irredenta in Lithuania, " Nationalities Papers (forthcoming): 5-6.
43. Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus: At a Crossroads in History (Boulder: Westview, 1993), 221.
44. This view is also widely held by Belarusian intellectuals. See Burant, “Belarus and the Belarusian Irredenta, " 7-9.
45. For the view of the secretary of the Belarusian National Front in 1991, see “Interview with Vintsuk Vyachorka, " Uncaptive Minds (Fall 1991): 211.
46. See also Józef Darski, “Zlektury czasopism białoruskich, " Kultura, no. 505 (October 1989): 106.
47. For the revanchist claims, see Józef Darski, “Kronika litewska i białoruska, " Kultura, no. 535 (April 1992).
48. “Country Asks UN Help for Ethnic Belarusians in Baltics, " Moscow Segodnya in Russia, April 9, 1994, in FBIS-SOV, April 11, 1994, p. 45.
49. For the ethnographic accounts, see Lech Mróz, “Problemy etnicznew Litwie wschodniej, " Przegląd wschodni 1, no. 3 (1991): 496;
50. Jacek Kuśmierz, “Miȩdzy ‘wschodem’ a ‘zachodem: ' stosunki etniczne na Wileńszczyźnie w wypowiedziach jej mieszkanców, " Przegląd wschodni 1, no. 3 (1991): 507-8.
51. Piotr Eberhardt, “Struktura narodow osciow a Polski północno-w schodniej w latach trzydziestych XXw ieku, " in Giżejewska and Strzem bosz, eds., Społeczeństwo, 48 (on religion and language), 53 (for population estimates).
52. For a Belarusian view of these events, see Wasilij Kusznier, “Wybrane problem y stosunków białorusko-polskich w latach 1920-1944 we wspólczesnej historiografii białoruskiej, " in Giżejewska and Strzembosz, eds., Spoleczenstwo, 14;
53. see also Alexander Chackiewicz, “Aresztowania i deportacje społeczeństw a zachodnich obwodów Białorusi (1939-1941), " in the same volume, p. 136.
54. This point is perceptively made in Anne Applebaum, Between East and West (London: Macmillan, 1995), 94.
55. Zdzisław Winnicki, “Polacy na Białorusi, " in Jacek Pietraś and Andrzej Czarnocki, eds., Polityka narodowościowa państw Europy Środkowowschodniej (Lublin: Instytut Europy Środkow o-Wschodniej, 1993), 199.
56. Juozis Lakis, “Ethnic Minorities in the Postcommunist Transformation of Lithuania, " International Sociology 10, no. 2 (1995): 179.
57. Eberhardt, “Przemiany narodowościowe na Litwie, " 478.
58. Szayna, “Ethnic Poles, " 35.
59. Kuśmierz, “Miȩdzy ‘wschodem’ a ‘zachodem’, " 512-13;
60. Mróz, “Problem y etniczne w Litwie wschodniej, " 496;
61. Szayna, “Ethnic Poles, " vii.
62. On Moscow ‘s strategy, see Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 167;
63. Szayna, “Ethnic Poles, " 15.
64. Problems of Lithuanian-Polish relations betw een 1989 and 1994 are treated at greater length in Tim Snyder, “National Myths and International Relations: Poland and Lithuania, 1989-1994, " East European Politics and Societies 9, no. 2 (1995): 317-44.
65. Piotr Łossowski, “The Polish Minority in Lithuania, " Polish Quarterly of International Affairs 1, nos. 1-2 (1992): 73.
66. Szayna, “Ethnic Poles, " vii.
67. See also Kuśmierz, “Miȩdzy ‘wschodem ' a ‘zachodem, '" 513.
68. Nikolaj Iwanov, “Die Polen Weissruslands, " Osteuropa 44, no. 5 (1994): 473.
69. For Skubiszewski’s position in 1990, see Leon Brodowski, “Niepodległość in statu nascendi, " Lithuania, no. 2 (1991).
70. Józef Darski, “Kronika litewska, białoruska i ukraińska, " Kultura, nos. 520-521 (January-February 1991).
71. See V. Stankuniene and A. Sipaviciene, “Evolution de la population et problém es dém ographiques en Lithuanie, " Populations 47, no. 1 (1992): 216.
72. “Polska polityka zagraniczna w 1996 roku, " unpublished document, Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1997;
73. “Szkoły polskie na Litwie, " unpublished document, Polish Foreign Ministry, February 1997;
74. “Polish-Lithuanian Relations, " OMRI Daily Digest, January 2, 1997.
75. Olena Skwiecińska, “Kochamy Litwinów, " Gazeta wyborcza, April 28, 1994, p. 6;
76. Alexander Kwaśniewski, “Address to the Lithuanian Parliament in Vilnius, " March 16, 1996;
77. Joźef Oleksy, “Toast at the official dinner given in his honour by Mr. Adolf as Slezevicius, Prime Minister of the Lithuanian Republic, " September 16, 1995.
78. “Lithuanian Foreign Minister Visits Poland, " OMRI Daily Digest, January 7, 1997.
79. Maja Narbutt, “Niepokój o traktat, " Rzeczpospolita, April 27-28, 1996, p. 23.
80. “New Polish Organization Formed in Lithuania, " OMRI Daily Digest, October 17, 1995.
81. Iwanow, “Die Polen Weissrusslands, " 474.
82. Dariusz Rostkowski, “Polski po pół wieku, " Polityka, October 5, 1996, p. 40;
83. Gawin, Ojcowizna, 63.
84. On the spread of Polish-language instruction, see Rostkowski, “Polski po pół wieku, " 40;
85. Iwanow, “Die Polen Weissrusslands, " 480;
86. Iwona Kabzińska-Stawarz, “Polacy na Białorusi: relacja z badań nad wspołczesnym procesem kszałtowania siȩ świadomości etnicznej, " Przegląd wschodni 2, no. 3 (1992-93): 684;
87. Waldemar Preckajło, “Pierwsza w pierwszej szkole, " Głos znad Niemna, May 29-June 4, 1995, p. 2;
88. Waldemar Preckajło, “Chcemy rozmawiać po polsku, " Głos znad Niemna, January 2-14, 1996, p. 1.
89. Józef Darski, “Kronika litewska, białoruska i ukraińska, " Kultura, no. 512 (May 1990): 86.
90. Gawin, Ojcowizna, 88, 104, 119, 123, 136, 158.
91. For examples of joint meetings and demonstrations of Poles and Belarusians, see Gawin, Ojcowizna, 81, 90.
92. Gawin, Ojcowizna, 27-28;
93. “Chairman Shushkevich Reviews Ties With Poland, " Wrocław Gazeta Robotnicza in Polish, June 13-14, 1991, in FBIS-EEU, June 25, 1992, p. 63.
94. Winnicki, “Polacy na Bialorusi, " 201-2;
95. Gawin, Ojcowizna, 149.
96. Mróz, “Problem y etniczne w Litwiew schodniej, " 688, 691.
97. Szayna, “Ethnic Poles, " 52.
98. Jan Krauze, “Foreign Ministry on Establishing Eastern Policy, " Le Monde, March 8-9, 1992, in FBIS-EEU, April 10, 1992, p. 27.
99. Tadeusz Kossobudzki, “Stracone szansy, " Kultura, no. 560, May 1994, p. 21.
100. See also “Suchocka Signs Economic A greem ents With Belarus, " Warsaw PAP in English, November 19, 1992, in FBIS-EEU, November 19, 1992, p. 16.
101. “Holds News Conference With Shushkevich, " Minsk Radio in Belarusian, June 28, 1993, in FBIS-SOV, June 29, 1993, p. 61;
102. “Polish Leader Addresses Supreme Soviet, " Minsk Radio in Belarusian, June 29, 1993, in FBIS-SOV, June 30, 1993, p. 64;
103. “Says Poland Has ‘No Territorial Claim s’ on Belarus, " Moscow Itar-Tass in English, June 29, 1993, in FBIS-SOV, June 30, 1993, p. 64.
104. Stephen R. Burant, “International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its Eastern Neighbors-Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, " Europe-Asia Studies 45, no. 3 (1995): 407.
105. “Poland’s Struzik Discusses NATO, Priests, Trade, " Warsaw Polskie Radio, April 4, 1995, in FBIS-SOV, April 5, 1995, p. 63;
106. Maja Narbutt, “Nie ufać Warszawie, " Rzeczpospolita, May 4-5, 1996, p. 1;
107. “Poles Accuse Authorities of Discrimination, " Warsaw TVP Second Program in Polish, February 9, 1995, in FBIS-SOV, February 10, 1995, p. 56;
108. Tadeusz Gawin, “Pod naciskiem dyktatu, " Głos znad Niemna, December 4-10, 1995, p. 1;
109. Ryszard Karaczun, “Jak rodak z rodakiem, " Głos znad Niemna, November 20-26, 1995, p. 1.
110. “Wobronie naszych racji, " Głos znad Niemna, February 17-23, 1997, pp. 1-2;
111. Ryszard Karaczun, “Z drogi odrodzenia nie zejdziemy” (interview with Tadeusz Gawin), Głos znad Niemna, September 23-29, 1996, p. 1.
112. Cezary Goliński, “Prezydent Łukaszenko przepisuje historie, " Gazeta wyborcza, August 17, 1995, p. 9.
113. Paradowska, “Wspólnota Polska, " 5.
114. “Konsulat Generalny RP już działa, " Głos znad Niemna, June 26-July 2, 1995, p. 1.
115. See for example Marcel Scotto, “Paris rechigne à signer la convention européenne sur les minorités, " Le Monde, February 23, 1995, p. 2.
116. The argument about the leverage provided by the promise of future European integration is a major theme of Milada Vachudová, Systemic and Domestic Determinants of East Central European Foreign Policies (D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 1997).
117. For a summary of related survey data see Kłoskowska, Kultury narodowe, especially p. 386.
118. See also “Polska-NATO, " CBOS serwis informacyjny, June 1996, p. 24.