Shifts and convergences in science learning and instruction

Handbook of Educational Psychology

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 438-490

  Linn, Marcia C ^a   Songer, Nancy B ^b   Eylon, Bat Sheva ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^c WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85084866857     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203053874-23     Document Type: Chapter

References (324)

1. Agogino, A. M., & Linn, M. C. (1972). Chemistry for high-school [in Hebrew] Rehovot, Israel: Weiz-mann Institute of Science.
2. Agogino, A. M., & Linn, M. C. (1982). Chemistry-a challenge [in Hebrew]. Rehovot, Israel: Weiz-mann Institute of Science.
3. Agogino, A. M., & Linn, M. C. “Canada.” (1984, April). Science for every student: Educating Canadians for tomorrow’s world. Canada
4. Agogino, A. M., & Linn, M. C. (1992, May-June). Retaining female engineering students: Will early design experiences help? [Editorial]. In M. Wilson (Ed.), NSF Directions, 5(2), 8-9.
5. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1992). Science, 255, pp. 1363-1389.
6. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy: Project 2061 New York: Oxford University Press.
7. Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8. Anderson, J. R., Boyle, C. F., & Reiser, B. J. (1985). Intelligent tutoring systems. Science, 228, 456-467.
9. Anderson, J. R., Conrad, F. G., & Corbett, A. T, (1989). Skill acquisition and the LISP tutor. Cognitive Science, 13(7), 467-505.
10. Anderson, J. R., & Jeffries, R. (1985). Novice LISP errors: Undetected losses of information from working memory. Human-Computer Interaction, 1(2), 107-131.
11. Anderson, J. R., Pirolli, P. L., & Farrell, R. (1988). Learning to program recursive functions. In M. T. H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M. Farr (Eds.), The nature of expertise (pp. 153-183). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
12. Apelman, M., Hawkins, D., & Morrison, P. (1985). Critical harriers phenomenon in elementary science Grand Forks, ND: University of North Dakota, Center for Teaching and Learning.
13. Association for Science Education. (1986). Science and Technology in Society Association for Science Education.
14. Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning: An introduction to school learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.
15. Ausubel, D. P., & Fitzgerald, D. (1961). The role of discriminability in meaningful verbal learning and retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 266-274.
16. Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive view (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
17. Baird, J. R., & Northfield, J. R. (Eds.). (1992). Learning from the PEEL experience Melbourne, Australia: Monash University Printing Services.
18. Bedell, R. C. (1934). The relationship between the ability to recall and the ability to infer in specific learning situations. In F. D. Curtis (Ed.) Science Education XVIII (pp. 158-162). York, PA: Maple Press.
19. Beggs (1905). The third yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
20. Ben-Zvi, R., Eylon, B., & Silberstein, J. (1986a). Is an atom of copper malleable? Journal of Chemical Education, 63(1), 64-66.
21. Ben-Zvi, R., Eylon, B., & Silberstein, J. (1986b). Revision of course materials on the basis of research on conceptual difficulties. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 12, 213-223.
22. Ben-Zvi, R., Eylon, B., & Silberstein, J. (1987). Students’ visualisation of a chemical reaction. Education in Chemistry, 24(7), 117-120.
23. Binet, A. (1908). The development of intelligence in the child. L’Annee psychologique, 14, 1-94.
24. Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
25. Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. (1963). Biology teachers’ handbook New York: Wiley.
26. Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. (1989). Science for life and living: Integrating science, technology, and health Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
27. Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, (1990). Science for life and living: Integrating science, technology, and health. Third Annual Progress Report Colorado Springs, CO: Biological Sciences and Curriculum Study, Elementary Science and Health Education Project.
28. Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13, 4-16.
29. Boenig, R. W. (1969). Research in science education: 1938 through 1947 New York: Teachers College Press.
30. Bowyer, J. B., & Linn, M. C. (1978). The effect of six years of experience with the Science Curriculum Improvement Study. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15, 209-216.
31. Bredderman, T. (1983). Effects of activity-based elementary science on student outcomes: A quantitative synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 53, 499-518.
32. Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1990a). Communities of learning and thinking, or, a context by any other name. Contributions to Human Development, 21, 108-126.
33. Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1990b). Interactive learning environments and the teaching of science and mathematics. In M. Gardner, J. G. Greeno, F. Reif, A. H. Schoenfeld, A. DiSessa, & E. Stage (Eds.), Toward a scientific practice of science education (pp. 111-140). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
34. Brown, A. L. & Campione, J. C. (in press). Guided discovery in a community of learners. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
35. Brown, A. L., Kane, M. J., & Echols, K. (1986). Young children’s mental models determine analogical transfer across problems with a common goal structure, Cognitive Development, 1(2), 103-122.
36. Brown, A. L., & Palincsar, A. S. (1987). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension strategies: A natural history of one program for enhancing learning. In J. G. Borkowski & J. D. Day (Eds.), Cognition in special children: Comparative approaches to retardation, learning disabilities, and giftedness (pp. 81-132). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
37. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-41.
38. Bruckheimer, M. (1979). Creative implementation. In Proceedings of the Bat-Sheva Seminar on Curriculum Implementation and Its Relationship to Curriculum Development (pp. 43-49). Tel Aviv, Israel: The Weitzmann Institute of Science.
39. Bruer, J. T. (1993). Schools for thought: A science of learning in the classroom Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
40. Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
41. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction New York: Norton.
42. Burbules, N. C., & Linn, M. C. (1991). Science education and the philosophy of science: Congruence or contradiction? International Journal of Science Education, 73(3), 227-241.
43. Bybee, R. W., & Landes, N. M. (1990). Science for life and living: An elementary school science program from Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. American Biology Teacher, 52(2), 92-98.
44. Campione, J. C., Brown, A. L., & Jay, M. (1992). Computers in a community of learners. In E. De Corte, M. C. Linn, H. Mandl, & L. VerschafFel (Eds.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving Berlin: Springer.
45. Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
46. Carver, S. M., Lehrer, R., Connell, T., & Erickson, J. (1992). Learning by hypermedia design: Issues of assessment and implementation. Educational Psychologist, 27(8), 385-404.
47. Case, R. (1974). Structures and strictures: Some functional limitations on thecourse of cognitive growth. Cognitive Psychology, 6,544-573.
48. Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood (Developmental Psychology series, H. Beilin, series Ed.). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
49. Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 1-22.
50. Champagne, A. B., Klopfer, L. E., & Gunstone, R. F. (1982). Cognitive research and the design of science instruction. Educational Psychologist, 7(1), 31-53.
51. Chase, W., & Simon, H. A. (1973a). The mind’s eye in chess. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing New York: Academic Press.
52. Chase, W., & Simon, H. A. (1973b). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55-81.
53. Chi, M. T. H., & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning from examples via selfexplanations. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 251-282). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
54. Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P., & Smith, E. L. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5(2), 121-152.
55. Clancy, M. J., & Linn, M. C. (1992). Designing Pascal solutions: A case study approach (1st ed.) (Principles of Computer Science, A. V. Aho & J. D. Ullman, series Eds.). New York: Freeman.
56. Clement, J. (1983). A conceptual model discussed by Galileo and used intuitively by physics students. In D. Gentner & A. L. Stevens (Eds.), Mental models Hillsdale, NJ; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
57. Clement, J. (1991). Non-formal reasoning in science: The use of analogies, extreme cases, and physical intuition. In J. F. Voss, D. N. Perkins, & J. Siegel (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
58. Clement, J. (1992). Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics,50, 66-71.
59. Clement, J., Brown, D., & Zietsman, A. (1989). Not all preconceptions are misconceptions: Finding “anchoring conceptions” for grounding instruction on students’ intuitions. International Journal of Science Education, 11, 554-565.
60. Cohen, E, G. (1986). Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom New York: Teachers College Press.
61. Cohen, E. G, (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 1-35.
62. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 75(3), 6-11, 38-39.
63. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Cognition and instruction: Issues and agendas(pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
64. Commission on Science Education. (1964). Science—a process approach: Commentary for teachers Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
65. Committee on Science and Technology Education. (1992). Tomorrow 98 Tel Aviv, Israel: Ministry of Education.
66. Como, L. (1992). Encouraging students to take responsibility for learning and performance. Elementary School Journal, 93(1), 69-83.
67. Cremin, L. A. (1964). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education 1876-1957 New York: Random House.
68. Cronbach, L. J. (1982). Designing evaluations of educational and social programs San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
69. Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions New York: Irvington.
70. Cunningham, H. A. (1924). Laboratory methods in natural science teaching. School Science and Mathematics, 24, 709-715, 848-851.
71. Cunningham, H. A. (1946). Lecture method versus individual laboratory method in science teaching: A summary. Science Education, 30, 70-82.
72. Cureton, E. E. (1927). Junior high school science. School Review, 35, 767-775.
73. Curtis, F. D. (1926). A digest of investigations in the teaching of science in the elementary and secondary schools York, PA: Maple Press.
74. Curtis, F. D. (1931). Second digest of investigations in the teaching of science York, PA: Maple Press.
75. Curtis, F. D. (1932). Some contributions of educational research to the solution of teaching problems in the science classroom. In G. M. Whipple (Ed.), The thirty-first yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: A program for teaching science (Pt. I) (pp. 91-108). Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
76. Curtis, F. D. (1939). Third digest of investigations in the teaching of science York, PA: Maple Press.
77. de Bono, E. (1973). Lateral thinking: Creativity step by step New York: Harper & Row.
78. Delprato, D. J., & Midgley, B. D. (1992). Some fundamentals of B. F. Skinner’s behaviorism. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1507-1520.
79. Department of Education and Science. (1988). The national curriculum: Science Working Party, Final Report London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
80. Dewey, J. (1901). Psychology and social practice (Contributions to education). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
81. Dewey, J. (1929). The sources of a science of education New York: Horace Liveright.
82. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education New York: Macmillan.
83. diSessa, A. (1982). Unlearning Aristotelian physics: A study of knowledge-based learning. Cognitive Science, 6, 37-75.
84. diSessa, A. (1988). Knowledge in pieces. In G. Forman & P. Pufall (Eds.), Constructivism in the computer age(pp. 49-70). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
85. diSessa, A. (1992). Images of learning. In E. De Corte, M. C. Linn, H. Mandl, & L. Verschaffel (Eds.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving Berlin: Springer.
86. diSessa, A. (1993). Toward an epistemology of physics. Cognition and Instruction, 10(2-3), 105-225.
87. diSessa, A., & Abelson, A. (1986). Boxer: A reconstructible computational medium. Communications of the ACM, 29(9), 859-868.
88. diSessa, A. A., & Minstrell, J. (in press). Cultivating conceptual change with benchmark lessons. In J. G. Greeno (Ed.), Thinking practices. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
89. Driver, R. (1973). The representation of conceptualframeworks in young adolescent science students Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
90. Driver, R. (1983) The pupil as scientist London: Open University Press.
91. Driver, R. (1988). Theory into practice: I. A constructivist approach to curriculum development. In P. Fensham (Ed.), Development and dilemmas in science education London: Falmer Press.
92. Driver, R., & Easley, J. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to concept development in adolescent science. Studies in Science Education, 5, 61-84.
93. Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (Eds.) (1985). Children’s ideas in science Philadelphia: Open University Press.
94. Duschl, R. A. (1990). Restructuring science education: The importance of theories and their development New York: Teachers College Press.
95. Duschl, R. A., & Gitomer, D. H. (1991). Epistemological perspectives on conceptual change: Implications for educational practice. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 28(9), 839-858.
96. Eckert, P. (1990). Adolescent social categories: Information and science learning. In M. Gardner, J. G. Greeno, F. Reif, A. H. Schoenfeld, A. DiSessa, & E. Stage (Eds.), Toward a scientific practice of science education (pp. 203-218). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
97. Eijkelhof, H., & Kortland, K. (1988). Broadening the aims of physics education. In P. Fensham (Ed.), Developments and dilemmas in science education London: Falmer Press.
98. Einstein, A. (1954). Ideas and opinions Based on C. Seelig (Ed.), Mein weltbild New York: Crown.
99. Eylon, B., Ben-Zvi, R., & Silberstein, J. (1987). Hierarchical task analysis: An approach for diagnosing students’ conceptual difficulties. International Journal of Science Education, 9(2), 187-196.
100. Eylon, B., Ben-Zvi, R., & Silberstein, J. (1988). Active hierarchical organization: A vehicle for promoting recall and problem-solving in introductory chemistry Rehovot, Israel: Weizmann Institute of Science.
101. Eylon, B., & Linn, M. C. (1988). Learning and instruction: An examination of four research perspectives in science education. Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 251-301.
102. Eylon, B., & Linn, M. C. (1994), Models and integration activities in science education. In E. Bar-On, Z. Scherz, & B. Eylon (Eds.), Designing intelligent learning environments Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
103. Fensham, P. (Ed.). (1988). Development and dilemmas in science education New York: Falmer Press.
104. Fischer, C. (1987) Advancing the study of programming with computer-aided protocol analysis. In G. M. Olson (Ed.), Empirical studies of programmers: Second workshop (pp. 198-216). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
105. Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive analysis of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
106. Forman, E. A. (1989). The role of peer interaction in the social construction of mathematical knowledge. International Journal of Educational Research, 13(1), 55-77.
107. Forman, E. A., & McPhail, J. (1993). A Vygotskian perspective on children’s collaborative problem-solving activities. In E. A. Forman, N. Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Socio cultural dynamics in children’s development New York: Oxford University Press.
108. Freeman, F. S. (1938). Contributions to education of scientific knowledge about individual differences. In G. M. Whipple (Ed.), The thirty-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Part II: The scientific movement in education. Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
109. French, A. P. (1986). Setting new directions in physics teaching: PSSC 30 years later. Physics Today, 39(9), 30-34.
110. Friedler, Y., Nachmias, R., & Linn, M. C. (1990). Learning scientific reasoning skills in microcomputer-based laboratories. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(2), 173-191.
111. Gagné, R. (1968). Instructional variables and learning outcomes Los Angeles: University of California Press.
112. Gambrill, B. L. (1922). Some administrative uses of intelligence tests in the normal school. In G. M. Whipple (Ed.), The twenty-first yearbook of the National Society for the Study ofEducation: Intelligence tests and their use (pp. 223-244). Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
113. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
114. Gardner, M., Greeno, J. G., Reif, F., Schoenfeld, A. H., diSessa, A., & Stage, E. (Eds.). (1990). Toward a scientific practice of science education Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
115. Gentner, D., & Stevens, A. L. (1983). Mental models Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
116. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard Educational Review, 47(1), 481-517.
117. Goldberg, A. (1984). The influence of object-oriented language on the programming environment. In D. Barstow, E. Shrobe, & E. Sande-wall (Eds.), Interactive programming environments (pp. 141-174). New York: McGraw-Hill.
118. Goldberg, F., & Bendall, S. (1992). Computer-video-based tutorials in geometrical optics. In R. Duit, F. Goldberg, & H. Niedderer (Eds.), Research in physics learning: Theoretical issues and empirical studies [Proceedings of an international workshop held at the University of Bremen] (pp. 356-379). Kiel, Germany: Institut für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften an der Universität.
119. Goldstein, J. S. (1992). A different sort of time: The life of Jerrold R. Zacharias, scientist, engineer, educator Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
120. Goodstein, D. L. (1990). The mechanical universe and beyond: Physics teaching enters the 20th century. In M. Gardner, J. G. Greeno, F. Reif, A. H. Schoenfeld, A. diSessa, & E. Stage (Eds.), Toward a scientific practice of science education (pp. 267-280). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
121. Greeno, J. G. (1980). Psychology of learning, 1960-1980: One participant’s observations. American Psychologist, 35(8), 713-728.
122. Greeno, J. G. (1983). Research on cognition and behavior relevant to education in mathematics, science, and technology (Chapter 6, Educating Americans for the 21st century). Washington, DC: National Science Board Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, National Science Foundation.
123. Greeno, J. G. (1989). Situations, mental models, and generative knowledge. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
124. Greeno, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1986). Problem solving and reasoning. In R. C. Atkinson, R. Hermstein, G. Lindzey, & R. D. Luce (Eds.), Steven’s handbook of experimental psychology (revised ed.). New York: Wiley.
125. Greenwood, C. R., Carta, J. J. & Hart, B. (1992). Out of the laboratory and into the community: 26 years of applied behavior analysis at the Juniper Gardens Children’s Project. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1464-1474.
126. Guilford, J. P., & Hoepfner, R. (1971). The analysis of intelligence New York: McGraw-Hill.
127. Gunstone, R. F., Gray, C. M. R., & Searle, P. (1992). Some long-term effects of uninformed conceptual change. Science Education, 76(2), 175-197.
128. Gunstone, R. F., White, R. T., & Fensham, P. J. (1988). Developments in style and purpose of research on the learning of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 25(7), 513-529.
129. Haber-Schaim, U., Cross, J. B., Dodge, J. H., & Walter, J. A. (1976). PSSC physics: Teacher’s resource book (4th ed.). Lexington, MA: Heath.
130. Harvey, N. (1901). A plea for the study of educational philosophy on the part of teachers of science. School Science, 1(4).
131. Hayes, S. C., & Hayes, L. J. (1992). Verbal relations and the evolution of behavior analysis. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1383-1395.
132. Hazen, R. M., & Trefil, J. (1991). Science matters: Achieving scientific literacy New York: Doubleday.
133. Heller, P., & Hollabaugh, M. (1992). Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping: 2. Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics, 60(8), 637-644.
134. Heller, P., Keith, R., & Anderson, S. (1992). Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping: 1. Group versus individual problem solving. American Journal of Physics, 60(8), 627-636.
135. Henig, R. M. (1993, October 3). Are women’s hearts different? The New York Times Magazine, pp. 58-61, 68-9, 82, 86.
136. Herriott, M. E. (1924). Life activities and the physics curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 24, 631-634.
137. Hestenes, D. (1992). Modeling games in the Newtonian world. American Journal of Physics, 60(8), 732-748.
138. Hilgard, E. R. (1956). Theories of learning (2nd ed.). New York: Apple-ton-Century-Crofts.
139. Hilgard, E. R. (1964). A perspective on the relationship between learning theory and educational practices. In E. R. Hilgard (Ed.), Theories of learning and instruction (pp. 402-415). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
140. Hilgard, E. R., & Bower, G. H. (1966). Theories of learning (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
141. Holmes, M. J. (Ed.). (1904). The third yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education: Nature-Study (Pt. I). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
142. Holton, G. (1978). On the educational philosophy of the Project Physics Course. In G. Holton (Ed), The scientific imagination: Case studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
143. Inhelder, B., &Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures New York: Basic Books.
144. Jaynes, J. (1975). Hello, teacher… [Review of The history of psychology: A personalized system of instruction course, and Selected readings in the history of psychology: A PSI companion]. Contemporary Psychology, 20, 629-631.
145. Jones, L., & Smith, S. (1990). Case study: Exploring chemistry. In W. H. Graves (Ed.), Computing across the curriculum: Academic perspectives (pp. 27-33). Academic Computing Publications.
146. Kahle, J. B. (1990). Real students take chemistry and physics: Gender issues. In K. Tobin, J. B. Kahle, &B. J. Fraser (Eds.), Windows into science classrooms: Problems associated with higher-level cognitive learning (pp. 92-134). London: Falmer Press.
147. Karplus, R. (1975). Strategies in curriculum development: The SCIS Project. In J. Schaffarzick & D. H. Hampson (Eds.), Strategies for curriculum development Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing.
148. Karplus, R., &Thier, H. D. (1967). A new look at elementary school science: Science Curriculum Improvement Study Chicago: Rand McNally.
149. Keller, E. F. (1983). A feeling for the organism: The life and work of Barbara McClintock San Francisco: Freeman.
150. Keller, E. F. (1985). Reflections on gender and science New Haven: Yale University Press.
151. Keller, F. S. (1954). Learning: Reinforcement theory New York: Random House.
152. Klahr, D., & Dunbar, K. (1988). Dual space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive Science, 7-2(1), 1-55.
153. Klahr, D., Dunbar, K., & Fay, A. L. (1990). Designing good experiments to test bad hypotheses. In J. Shrager &P. Langley (Eds.), Computational models of scientific discovery and theory formation (pp. 355-402). Palo Alto, CA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
154. Klopp, W. J. (1927). A study of the offerings of general science texts. General Science Quarterly,11, 236-246.
155. Kuhn, D., Amsel, E., & O’Loughlin, M., with the assistance of Schauble, L. (1988). The development of scientific thinking skills (Developmental Psychology series). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
156. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
157. Kulik, J. A., &Kulik, C-L. C. (1989). Meta-analysis in education. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 221-340.
158. Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C-L. C., & Carmichael, K. (1974). The Keller plan in science teaching. Science, 183, 379-383.
159. Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programs. In I. Lakatos &A. Musgrave (Eds.), Criticism and the growth of knowledge(Vol. 4, pp. 91-196). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
160. Larkin, J., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208(26), 1335-1342.
161. Larkin, J. H. (1983). A general knowledge structure for learning or teaching science. In A. C. Wilkinson (Ed.), Computers and cognition. New York: Academic Press.
162. Larkin, J. H., & Reif, F. (1979). Understanding and teaching problem solving in physics. European Journal of Science Education, 1, 191-203.
163. Lattal, K. A. (Ed.). (1992). Reflections on B. F. Skinner and psychology [Special issue]. American Psychologist, 47(11).
164. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
165. Lawlor, E. P. (1970). Research in science education: 1953 through 1957 New York: Teachers College Press.
166. Lawson, A. F. (1985). A review of research on formal reasoning and science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 22, 569-617.
167. Levine, D. I., & Linn, M. C. (1977). Scientific reasoning ability in adolescence: Theoretical viewpoints and educational implications. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14, 371-384.
168. Levine, J. M., Resnick, L. B., & Higgins, F. T. (1993) Social foundations of cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 585-612.
169. Lewis, E. L. (1991). The process of scientific knowledge acquisition among middle school students learning thermodynamics Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
170. Lewis, E. L., &Linn, M. C. (1994). Heat energy and temperature concepts of adolescents, naïve adults, and experts: Implications for curricular improvements. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(4), 657-677.
171. Lewis, J. (1980), Science in Society: Readers’ and Teachers' Guide. London: Heinemann.
172. Linn, M. C. (1970). Effects of a training procedure on matrix performance and on transfer tasks Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
173. Linn, M. C. (1980). Teaching children to control variables: Some investigations using free choice experiences. In S. Modgil & C. Modgil (Eds.), Toward a theory of psychological development within the Piagetian framework Windsor, England: National Foundation for Educational Research Publishing Co.
174. Linn, M. C. (1985). The cognitive consequences of programming instruction in classrooms. Educational Researcher, 14(5), 14-16, 25-29.
175. Linn, M. C. (1986). Science. In R. Dillon & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Cognition and instruction (pp. 155-204). New York: Academic Press.
176. Linn, M. C. (1987). Establishing a research base for science education: Challenges, trends, and recommendations. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24(5), 191-216.
177. Linn, M. C. (1992a). The computer as learning partner: Can computer tools teach science? In K. Sheingold, L. G. Roberts, & S. M. Malcolm (Eds.), This year in school science 1991: Technology for teaching and learning Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
178. Linn, M. C. (1992b). Gender differences in educational achievement. In J. Pfleiderer(Ed.), Sex equity in educational opportunity, achievement, and testing: Proceedings of 1991 Educational Testing Service Invitational Conference (pp. 11-50). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
179. Linn, M. C. (in press). From separation to partnership in science education: Students, laboratories, and the curriculum. In R. Tinker & T. Ellermeijer (Eds.), NATO advanced research workshop on microcomputer based labs: Educational research and standards. Belgium: Springer.
180. Linn, M. C., & Burbules, N. C. (1993). Construction of knowledge and group learning. In K. Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education(pp. 91-119). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
181. Linn, M. C., & Clancy, M. J. (1992a). Can experts’ explanations help students develop program design skills? International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 36(4), 511-551.
182. Linn, M C., & Clancy, M.J. (1992b). The case for case studies of programming problems. Communications of the ACM, 3-5(3), 121-132.
183. Linn, M. C., Clement, C., & Pulos, S. (1983). Is it formal if it’s not physics? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(8), 755-770.
184. Linn, M. C., diSessa, A., Pea, R. D., & Songer, N. B. (1994, March). Can research on science learning and instruction inform standards for science education? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 3(1), 7-15.
185. Linn, M. C., & Songer, N. B. (1991). Cognitive and conceptual change in adolescence. American Journal of Education, 99(4), 379-417.
186. Linn, M. C., & Songer, N. B. (1993). How do students make sense of science? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39(1), 47-73
187. Linn, M. C., Songer, N. B., & Lewis, E. L. (Eds.). (1991). Students’ models and epistemologies of science [Special issue]. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9).
188. Linn, M. C., Songer, N. B., Lewis, E. L., & Stem, J. (1993). Using technology to teach thermodynamics: Achieving integrated understanding. In D. L. Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced educational technologies for mathematics and science (Vol. 107, pp. 5-60). Berlin: Springer.
189. Linn, M. C., & Thier, H, D. (1975). The effect of experiential science on the development of logical thinking in children. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 12, 49-62.
190. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
191. Madhok, J. J. (1992). Group size and gender composition influences on discussion. In 1992 Berkeley Women and Language Conference: Locating power Berkeley: University of California.
192. N Project as a design experiment, In J. Hawkins & A. Collins (Eds.), Design experiments
193. Mandinach, E. B., & Thorpe, M. E. (1987). The systems thinking and curriculum innovation project. Technology and Learning, 1(2), 1,10-11.
194. Markman, E. M. (1978). Empirical versus logical solutions to part-whole comparison problems concerning classes and collections. Child Development, 79, 168-177.
195. Matteson, H. D., & Kambley, P. E. (1940). Knowledge of science possessed by pupils entering the seventh grade. School Science and Mathematics, 40, 244-247.
196. McCloskey, M., Caramazza, A., & Green, B. (1980), Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: Naive beliefs about the motion of objects. Science, 210, 1139-1141.
197. McDermott, L. C, (1984). Research on conceptual understanding in mechanics. Physics Today, 37, 24-32.
198. McMurry, C. A. (Ed.). (1904). The third yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education: The relation of theory to practice in the education of teachers (Pt. I) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
199. Michaels, W. C. (1957). High school physics. Physics Today, 10(1), 20-21.
200. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
201. Millikan, R. A., & Gale, H. G. (1906). A laboratory course in physics for secondary schools Boston: Ginn.
202. Millikan, R. A., & Gale, H. G. (1927). Elements of physics. Boston: Ginn.
203. Minsky, M. L. (1986). The society of mind New York: Simon & Schuster.
204. Minstrell, J. (1982). Explaining the ‘at rest’ condition of an object. Physics Teacher, 20, 10-14.
205. National Assessment of Educational Progress. (1988), The science report card: Elements of risk and recovery: Trends and achievement based on the 1986 national assessment Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
206. National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
207. National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment. (1992). National Science Education Standards sampler (Nov.’92). Washington, DC: National Research Council.
208. National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment. (1993a). National Science Education Standards sampler (Feb.’93). Washington, DC: National Research Council.
209. National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment. (1993b). National Science Education Standards: July’93 progress report Washington, DC: National Research Council.
210. National Science Board. (1990). Science and engineering indicators- 1989 Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
211. National Science Foundation. (1990). Women and minorities in science and engineering Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
212. National Science Teachers Association. Scope & Sequence Committee. (1991). Scope and Sequence curriculum Washington, DC: National Science Teachers Association.
213. Nersessian, N. J. (1991). Conceptual change in science and in science education. In M. R. Matthews (Ed.), History, philosophy, and science teaching (pp. 133-148). New York: Teachers College Press.
214. Newman, D. (1990). Using social context for science teaching. In M. Gardner, J. G. Greeno, F. Reif, A. H, Schoenfeld, A. diSessa, & E. Stage (Eds.), Toward a scientific practice of science education(pp. 187-202). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
215. Newman, D., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1989). The construction zone: Working for cognitive change in school London: Cambridge University Press.
216. Noll, V. H. (1939). The teaching of science in elementary and secondary schools New York: Longman, Green.
217. Novak, J. D. (1968). A case study of curriculum change: Science since PSSC. School Science and Mathematics, 374-384.
218. Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept mapping: A useful tool for science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(10), 937-949.
219. Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn New York: Cambridge University Press.
220. Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. F., & Johannsen, G. T. (1983). The use of concept mapping with junior high school science students. Science Education, 67, 625-645.
221. Novak, J. D., & Musonda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learning. American Educational Research Journal, 28(1), 117-153.
222. Novick, S., & Nussbaum, J. (1978). Junior high school pupils’ understanding of the particulate nature of matter: An interview study. Science Education, 62, 273-281.
223. Nussbaum, J. (1989). Classroom conceptual change: Philosophical perspectives. In D. E. Herget (Ed.), First International Conference of the History and Philosophy of Science in Science Teaching Tallahassee: Florida State University.
224. Palincsar, A. S., Anderson, C., & David, Y. M. (1993). Pursuing scientific literacy in the middle grades through collaborative problem solving. Elementary School Journal, 93(5), 643-658.
225. Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction,1, 117-175.
226. Palmer, D. C., & Donohoe, J, W. (1992). Essentialism and selectionism in cognitive science and behavior analysis. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1344-1358.
227. Papert, S. A. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas New York: Basic Books.
228. Pascual-Leone, J., Goodman, D., Ammon, P., & Subelman, I. (1978). Piagetian theory and neo-Piagetian analysis as psychological guides in education. In J. M. Gallagher & J. A. Easley (Eds.), Knowledge and development (Vol. 2). New York: Plenum.
229. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). London: Oxford University Press.
230. Pea, R. D. (1985). Beyond amplification: Using the computer to recognize mental functioning. Educational Psychologist, 20, 167-182.
231. Pea, R. D. (1992). Augmenting the discourse of learning with computer-based learning environments. In E. De Corte, M. C. Linn, H. Mandl, & L. Verschaffel (Eds.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving Berlin: Springer.
232. Pea, R. D., & Gomez, L. (1992). Distributed multimedia learning environments: Why and how? Interactive Learning Environments, 2, 73-109.
233. Pea, R. D., & Gomez, L. (1993). Distributed multimedia learning environments: The Collaborative Visualization Project. Communications of the ACM, 36(5), 60-63.
234. Pella, M. O. (1976). Sixty years of science education [Editorial]. Science Education, 60(4), 433-439.
235. Perry, J. (1900). England’s neglect of science [Preface to an Elementary Book on Practical Mechanics]. London: Unwin.
236. Peterson, P., & Wilkinson, L. C. (1984). Instructional groups in the classroom: Organization and processes. In L. C. Wilkinson, P. Peterson & M. Hallinan (Eds.), The social context of instruction: Group organization and group processes (pp. 3-11). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
237. Pfundt, H., & Duit, R. (1991). Students’ alternativeframeworks (3rd ed.). Kiel, Germany: Institut für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften [Institute for Science Education at the University of Kiel]
238. Physical Science Study Committee (1966). Introductory physical science (Preliminary ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
239. Piaget, J. (1929). The child's conception of the world London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
240. Piaget, J. (1972a). Intellectual evolution from adolescencè to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
241. Piaget, J. (1972b). Science of education and the psychology of the child. New York: Viking Press.
242. Powers, S. R. (1925). The vocabularies of high school science textbooks. Teachers College Record, 26, 368-392.
243. Raizen, S. A. (1991a). The reform of science education in the U.S.A.: Déjà vu or de novo? Studies in Science Education, 19, 1-41.
244. Raizen, S. A. (1991b). The state of science education. In S. K. Majumdar, L. M. Rosenfeld, P. A. Rubba, E. W. Miller, & R. F. Schmalz (Eds.), Science education in the United States: Issues, crises and priorities(pp. 25-45). Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Academy of Science.
245. Randall, D. P., Chapman, J. C., & Sutton, C. W. (1918). The place of numerical problems in high school physics. School Review, 26, 39-43.
246. Redish, E. F., & Wilson, J. M. (1993). Student programming in the introductory physics course-Muppet. American Journal of Physics, 61(3), 222-232.
247. Reif, F., & Larkin, J. H. (1991). Cognition in scientific and everyday domains: Comparison and learning implications. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 733-760.
248. Resnick, L. (1981). Instructional psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 659-704.
249. Resnick, L. B. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.
250. Richards, J., Barowy, W., & Levin, D. (1992). Computer simulations in the science classroom. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1, 67-79.
251. Rosier, M. J., & Keeves, J. P. (1991). The International Studies in Educational Achievement (IEA) Study of Science I: Science education and curricula in twenty-three countries Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
252. Rossiter, M. W. (1982). Women scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940 Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
253. Rubin, A., Bruce, B., Rosebery, A., & DuMouchel, W. (1988). Getting an early start: Using interactive graphics to teach statistical concepts in high school, (Proceedings of the Statistical Education Section). Washington, DC: American Statistical Association.
254. Rutherford, F. J., & Ahlgren, A. (1990). Science for all Americans New York: Oxford University Press.
255. Rutherford, F. J., Holton, G., & Watson, F. G. (1970). The Project Physics course handbook New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
256. Salinger, G. L. (1991). The materials of physics instruction. Physics Today, 44(9), 39-45.
257. Sambursky, S. (Ed.). (1975). Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists: An anthology New York: Pica Press.
258. Sanders, R. (1992, March). Chemistry in context: Victorian chemistry. Chemistry in Australia, 9, 112-113.
259. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1991). Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1, 37-68.
260. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). A knowledge building architecture for computer supported learning. In E. De Corte, M. C. Linn, H. Mandl, & L. Verschaffel (Eds.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving Berlin: Springer.
261. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1993). Technologies for knowledge-building discourse. Communications of the ACM, 36(5), 37-41.
262. Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
263. Schäuble, L., Klopfer, L. E., & Raghavan, K. (1991). Students’ transition from an engineering model to a science model of experimentation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 859-882.
264. Schneps, M. H., & Sadler, P. M. (1989). A private universe. [Video]. Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
265. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1983). Beyond the purely cognitive: Belief systems, social cognitions, and metacognitions as driving forces in intellectual performance. Cognitive Science, 7(4), 329-363.
266. Schramm, W, (Ed.). (1964). Four case studies of programmed instruction New York: Fund for the Advancement of Education.
267. Science Manpower Project (Frederick L. Fitzpatrick: Director). (1959). Modem high school physics: A recommended course of study (2nd ed.). New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia UniversityTeach-er’s College.
268. Sears, F. W., & Zemansky, M. W. (1949). College physics Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
269. Shayer, M., Adey, P., & Wylam, H. (1981). Group tests of cognitive development ideals and a realization. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 18, 157-168.
270. Sherwood, B. A., & Sherwood, J. N. (1986). The CMU tutor language. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co.
271. Shulman, L. S., & Tamir, P. (1973). Research on teaching in the natural sciences. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching (pp. 1098-1148). Chicago: Rand McNally.
272. Shymansky, J. A., & Kyle, W. C., Jr. (Eds.). (1992). Journal of Research in Science Teaching,29(8).
273. Shymansky, J. A., Kyle, W. C., Jr., & Alport, J. M. (1983). The effects of new science curricula on student performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 387-404.
274. Siegler, R. S. (1976). Three aspects of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 481-520.
275. Simon, H. A. (1974). How big is a chunk? Science, 183, 482-488.
276. Skinner, B. F (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969-977.
277. Smith, C., Carey, S., & Wiser, M. (1985). On differentiation: A case study of development of the concepts of size, weight, and density. Cognition, 21, 177-237.
278. Smith, J. P., diSessa, A. A., & Roschelle, J. (1994). Misconceptions reconceived: A constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. Journal of the Learning Sciences
279. Smith, S. G., &Sherwood, B. A. (1976). Educational uses of the PLATO computer system. Science, 192, 334-352.
280. Snow, R. E. (1980). Aptitude, learner control, and adaptive instruction. Educational Psychologist, 15(3), 151-158.
281. Snow, R. E. (1989). Toward assessment of cognitive and conative structures in learning. Educational Researcher, 18(9), 8-14.
282. Solomon, B. M. (1985). In the company of educated women New Haven: Yale University Press.
283. Songer, N. B. (1989). Promoting integration of instructed and natural world knowledge in thermodynamics Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
284. Songer, N. B. (1993). Learning science with a child-focused resource: A case study of Kids as Global Scientists. In Proceedings of the fifteenth annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 935-940). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
285. Songer, N. B., & Linn, M. C. (1991). How do students’ views of science influence knowledge integration? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 761-784.
286. Stem, J. L. (1990). E-LabBook Berkeley: UC Regents.
287. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: The triarchic theory of human intelligence Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
288. Swartz, C. (Ed.). (1991). Pre-college education (Special issue). Physics Today, 44(1).
289. Swift, J. N. (1969). Research in science education: 1948 through 1952. New York: Teachers College Press.
290. Thorndike, E. L. (1910). The contribution of psychology to education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1, 1-14.
291. Thorndike, E. L. (1927). The teacher’s word book New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.
292. Thurstone, L. L., & Chave, E. J. (1929). The measurement of attitude. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
293. Tinker, R., & Papert, S. (1989). Tools for science education. In J. Ellis (Ed.), 1988 AETS yearbook Information technology and science education Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education.
294. Tinker, R. F. (1987). Network science arrives. Hands On, 10(1), 1, 10-11.
295. Toulmin, S. (1972). Human understanding: An inquiry into the aims of science Princeton: Princeton University Press.
296. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5(4), 297-323.
297. Tyler, R. W. (1933). Permanence of learning. Journal of Higher Education, 4, 203-204.
298. Tyler, R. W. (1938). The specific techniques of investigation: Examining and testing acquired knowledge, skill, and ability. In G. M. Whipple (Ed.), The thirty-seventh yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: The scientific movement in education (Pt. II). Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
299. Underhill, O. E. (1941). The origins and development of elementary-school science Chicago, IL: Scott, Foresman.
300. Viennot, L. (1979). Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics. European Journal of Science Education, 1(2), 205-221.
301. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. (1992). Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change in childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535-558.
302. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
303. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole & et al., series Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
304. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1. Problems of general psychology (R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton, series Eds.). New York: Plenum Press.
305. Wasik, J. L. (1971). A comparison of cognitive performance of PSSC and non-PSSC physics students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 8, 85-90.
306. Watson, F. G. (1963). Research on teaching science. In N. L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 1031-1059). Chicago: Rand McNally.
307. Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Educational Research, i3(l), 21-39.
308. Welch, W., & Walberg, H.J. (1972). A national experiment in curriculum evaluation. American Educational Research Journal, 9, 373-383.
309. Welch, W. W. (1973). Review of the research and evaluation program of Ha ward Project Physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 10(4), 365-378.
310. Welch, W. W. (1979). Twenty years of science curriculum development: A look back. In D. C. Berliner (Ed.), Review of research in education(pp. 282-308). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
311. Wellesley College Center for Research on Women. (1992). How schools shortchange girls Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation.
312. Whipple, G. M. (Ed.). (1922). The twenty-first yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Intelligence tests and their use. (Pt. I) Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
313. Whipple, G. M. (Ed.). (1932). The thirty-first yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: A program for teaching science. Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing Co.
314. White, B. Y. (1993). Thinker Tools: Causal models, conceptual change, and science education. Cognition and Instruction, 10(1), 1-100.
315. White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R. (1990). Causal model progressions as a foundation for intelligent learning environments. Artificial Intelligence, 24(1), 99-157.
316. White, R. T. (1987). Trends in science education research. In I. Lowe (Ed.), Teaching the interactions of science, technology and society(pp. 294-304). Cheshire, England: Longman.
317. White, R. T. (1988). Metacognition. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational research, methodology and measurement: An international handbook (pp. 70-75). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
318. White, R. T. (1992). Implications of recent research on learning for curriculum and assessment. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 24(2), 153-164.
319. White, R. T. (in press). Improving the teaching and learning of science in the post-compulsory years. In P. J. Fensham (Ed.), Science and technological education in Australia Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.
320. White, R. T., & Gunstone, R. F. (1989). Metaleaming and conceptual change. International Journal of Science Education, 11, 577-586.
321. Whitehead, A. N. (1929). The aims of education New York: Macmillan.
322. Wiser, M. (1988). The differentiation of heat and temperature: History of science and novice-expert shift. In S. Strauss (Ed.), Ontogeny, phylogeny, and historical development Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
323. Wiser, M., & Carey, S. (1983). When heat and temperature were one. In D. Gentner & A. L. Stevens (Eds.), Mental models (pp. 267-298). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
324. Yerkes, R. M. (1921). Psychological examining in the United States army. Memoirs of the National Academy of Science, 15, pp. 11-27.