Sensory feedback using electrical stimulation of the tactile sense

Rehabilitation Engineering

Volumn , Issue , 2018, Pages 29-78

  Szeto, Andrew Y J ^a   Riso, Ronald R ^b  

^a AGC Paul S Roel Chair in Construction Engineering and Management   (United States)

^b CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85066869363     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9780203741009     Document Type: Chapter

References (145)

1. Szeto, A. Y. J. and Saunders, F. A., Electrocutaneous stimulation for sensory communication in rehabilitation engineering, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 29(4), 300, 1982
2. Mann, R. W., Cybernetic limb prosthesis, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 9, 1, 1980
3. Mooney, V. and Reswick, J. B., Sensory Feedback Myoelectric Prosthesis, Rancho Los Amigos Hospital, Final Report to VAPC, 1976
4. Riso, R. R., Ignagni, A. R., and Keith, M. W., Electrocutaneous sensations elicited using subdermally located electrodes, 11, 25, 1989
5. Sinclair, D. C., The nerves of the skin, in The Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Skin, Vol. 2, Jarrett, A., Ed., Academic Press, London, 1973
6. House, E. L. and Pansky, B., A Functional Approach to Neuroanatomy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960
7. Brenes, G., Anatomy and neurophysiology, in Manual on Management of the Quadriplegic Upper Extremity, Malick, M. H. and Meyer, C. M. H., Eds., Harmarville Rehabilitation Center, Pittsburgh, PA, ABC Press, 1978
8. Vallbo, A. B. and Johansson, R. S., The tactile sensory innervation of the glabrous skin of the human hand, in Active Touch, Gorden, G., Ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1978, 29
9. Quilliams, T. A., The structure of finger print skin, in Active Touch, Gorden, G., Ed., Pergamon Press, London, 1978, 1
10. Winkelmann, R. K. and Breathnach, A. S., The Merkel cell, J. Invest. Dermatol., 60, 2, 1973
11. Ochoa, J. and Torebjork, E., Sensations evoked by intraneural microstimulation of single mechanoreceptor units innervating the human hand, J. Physiol., 342, 633, 1983
12. Chambers, M. R., Andres, K. H., von Duering, M., and Iggo, A., The structure and function of the slowly adapting type II mechanoreceptor in hairy skin, Q. J. Exp. Physiol., 57, 417, 1972
13. Johansson, R. S., Tactile sensibility in the human hand. Receptive field characteristics of mechanoreceptive units in the glabrous skin area, J. Physiol., 281, 101, 1978
14. Vallbo, A. B., Olsson, K. A., Westberg, K. G., and Clark, F. J., Microstimulation of single tactile afferents from the human hand. Brain, 107, 111, 1984
15. Hulliger, M., Nordh, E., Thelin, A. E., and Vallbo, A. B., The responses of afferent fibers from the glabrous skin of the hand during voluntary finger movement in man, J . Physiol., 291, 233, 1979
16. Winkelmann, R. K., Nerve Endings in Normal and Pathological Skin, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1960
17. Georgopoulos, A. P., Functional properties of primary afferent units probably related to pain mechanisms in primate glabrous skin, J. Neurophysiol., 39, 71, 1976
18. Keele, C. A., Chemical causes of pain and itch, Annu. Rev. Med., 21, 67, 1970
19. Merzenich, M. M. and Harrington, T., The sense of flutter-vibration evoked by stimulation of the hairy skin of primates: comparison of human sensory capacity with the responses of mechanoreceptive afferents innervating the hairy skin of monkeys, Exp. Brain Res., 9, 236, 1969
20. Smith, K. R., The ultrastructure of the human Haarsheibe and Merkel cell, J. Invest. Dermatol., 54, 150, 1970
21. Schady, W. J. L., Torebjork, H. E., and Ochoa, J. L., Cerebral localization function from the input of single mechanoreceptive units in man, Acta Physiol. Scand., 119, 211, 1983
22. Geldard, F. A., Adventures in tactile literacy. Am. Psychologist, 12, 115, 1957
23. Gorman, P. H. and Mortimer, J. T., The effect of stimulus parameters on the recruitment characteristics of direct nerve stimulation, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 30(7), 407, 1983
24. Hallin, R. G. and Torebjork, H. E., Electrically induced A and C fibre responses in intact human skin nerves, Exp. Brain Res., 16, 309, 1973
25. Wilier, J. C., Boureau, F., and Albe-Fessard, D., Role of large diameter cutaneous afferents in transmission of nociceptive messages: electrophysiological study in man. Brain Res., 152, 358, 1978
26. Dalziel, C. F., Electric shock, in Advances in Biomedical Engineering, Brown, J. H. V. and Dickson, J. F., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1973, 3, 223
27. Weibell, F. J., Electrical safety in the hospital-1974, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 1, 126, 1974
28. Prior, R. E., Study of Electrocutaneous Parameters Relevant to Dynamic Tactual Communication Systems, Ph.D. dissertation, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of California, Los Angeles, 1972
29. Collins, C. C., Electrotactile visual prosthesis, in Functional Electrical Stimulation, Hambrecht, F. T. and Reswick, J. B., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1977, 189
30. Clippinger, F. W., Avery, R., and Titus, B. R., A sensory feedback system for an upper-limb amputation prosthesis. Bull. Prosthetics Res., 10-22, 247, 1974
31. Anani, A. B., Ikeda, K., and Korner, E. R., Human ability to discriminate various parameters in afferent electrical nerve stimulation with particular reference to prosthetic sensory feedback, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 15, 363, 1977
32. Saunders, F. A., Recommended procedures for electrocutaneous displays, in Functional Electrical Stimulation, Hambrecht, F. T. and Reswick, J. B., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1977, 303
33. Cauna, N., Light and electron microscopial structure of sensory end-organs in human skin, in The Skin Senses, Kenshalo, D., Ed., Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1968, 15
34. Mountcastle, V. B., Sensory receptors and neural encoding: introduction to sensory processes, in Medical Physiology, 13th Ed., Mountcastle, V. B., Ed., C. V. Mosby, Saint Louis, 1974, 285
35. Solomonow, M., Lyman, J., and Freedy, A., Electrotactile two-point discrimination as a function of frequency, body site, laterality, and stimulation codes, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 5, 47, 1977
36. Solomonow, M., Raplee, L., and Lyman, J., Electrotactile two-point discrimination as a function of frequency, pulse width, and pulse time delay, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 6, 117, 1978
37. Butikofer, R. and Lawrence, P. D., Electrical nerve stimulation. I. Model and experiment, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 25, 526, 1978
38. Butikofer, R. and Lawrence, P. D., Electrical nerve stimulation. II. Stimulus waveform selection, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 26, 69, 1979
39. Reilly, J. P., Freeman, V. T., and Larkin, W. D., Sensory effects of transient electrical stimulation-evaluation with a neuroelectric model, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 32, 1001, 1985
40. Rollman, G. B., Electrocutaneous stimulation: psychometric functions and temporal integration. Percept. Psychophys., 5, 298, 1969
41. Yamamoto, T., Yamamoto, Y., and Yoshida, A., Formative mechanisms of current concentration and breakdown phenomena dependent on direct current flow through the skin by a dry electrode, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 33, 396, 1986
42. Lykken, D. T., Square wave analysis of skin impedance. Psychophysiology, 7(2), 262, 1971
43. Reichmanis, M., Marino, A. A., and Becker, R. O., Electrical correlates of acupuncture points, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 22, 533, 1975
44. Burton, C. E., David, R. M., Portnoy, W. M., and Akers, L. A., The application of Bode analysis to skin impedance. Psycho physiology, 11, 517, 1974
45. Edelberg, R., Electrical properties of the skin, in Biophysical Properties of the Skin, Elden, H. R., Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1971, 513
46. Reichmanis, M., Marino, A. A., and Becker, R. O., Laplace plane analysis of transient impedance between acupuncture points Li-4 and Li-12, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 24, 402, 1977
47. Szeto, A. Y. J., Electrocutaneous Codes for Sensory Feedback in Prostheses and Orthoses, Ph.D. dissertation, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of California, Los Angeles, 1977
48. Saunders, F. A., Electrocutaneous displays, in Conference on Vibrotactile Communcation, Geldard, F. A., Ed., The Psychonomic Society, Austin, TX, 1974, 20
49. Solomonow, M. and Lyman, J., Artificial sensory conununication via the tactile sense: space and frequency optimal displays, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 5, 273, 1977
50. Brummer, S. B. and Turner, M. J., Electrical stimulation of the nervous system: the principle of safe charge injection with noble metal electrodes, Bioelectrochem. Bioenerg., 2, 13, 1975
51. Szeto, A. Y. J. and Mao, L., Dermal effects of electrocutaneous stimulation, in Biomedical Engineering I: Recent Developments, Saha, S., Ed., 1982, 121
52. Mao, L., Long Term Dermatological Effects of Electrocutaneous Stimulation, M.S. thesis. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, 1982
53. Soma, M., Design and Fabrication of an Implantable Multichannel Neural Stimulator, Tech. Rep. No. G908-1, Integrated Circuits Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 1980
54. Holle, J., Frey, M., Gruber, H., Kern, H., Stohr, H., and Thoma, H., Functional electrostimulation of paraplegics: experimental investigations and first clinical experience with an implantable stimulation device. Orthopaedics, 7(7), 1145, 1984
55. Donaldson, N., A 24-output implantable stimulator for FES, in Proc. of the 2nd Vienna Int. Workshop on FES, Vienna, Austria, 1986, 197
56. Brindley, G. S., Polkey, C. E., Ruston, D. N., and Cardozo, L., Sacral anterior root stimulators for bladder control in paraplegia: the first 50 cases, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 49, 1104, 1986
57. Smith, B., Peckham, P. H., Keith, M. W., and Roscoe, D. D., An externally powered, multichannel, implantable, stimulator for versatile control of paralyzed muscle, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 34, 499, 1987
58. Riso, R. R., Ignagni, A. R., and Keith, M. W., Electrocutaneous sensations elicited using subdermally located electrodes, Automedica, 11, 25, 1989
59. Caldwell, C. W. and Reswick, J. B., A percutaneous wire electrode for chronic research use, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 22, 429, 1975
60. Mortimer, J. T., Motor prostheses, in Handbook of Physiology: The Nervous System, Vol. 2, Brooks, V. B., Ed., American Physiology Society, Bethesda, MD, 1981, 155
61. Grandjean, P. A. and Mortimer, J. T., Recruitment properties of monopolar and bipolar electrodes, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 14, 53, 1986
62. Clippinger, F. W., A system to provide sensation from an upper extremity amputation prosthesis, in Neural Organization and Its Relevance to Prosthetics, Fields, W. and Leavitt, L., Eds., Intercontinental, New York, 1973, 165
63. Anani, A. and Korner, L., Discrimination of phantom hand sensations elicited by afferent electrical nerve stimulation in below-elbow amputees, Med. Prog. Through TechnoL, 6, 131, 1979
64. Waters, R. L., McNeal, D., and Perry, J., Experimental correction of footdrop by electrical stimulation of the peroneal nerve, J. Bone J. Surg., 57-A, 1047, 1975
65. Glenn, W. W. L., Holcomb, W. G., Hogan, J. F., Kaneyuki, T., and Kim, J., Long-term stimulation of the phrenic nerve for diaphragm pacing, in Functional Electrical Stimulation, Reswick, J. B. and Hambrecht, F. T., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1977, 97
66. Clippinger, F. W., Seaber, A. V., McElhaney, J. H., Harrelson, J. M., and Maxwell, G. M., Afferent sensory feedback for lower extremity prosthesis, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res., 169, 202, 1982
67. Vallbo, A. B., Sensation evoked from the glabrous skin of the human hand by electrical stimulation of unitary mechanosensitive afferents. Brain Res., 215, 359, 1981
68. Edell, D. J., Churchill, J. N., and Gourly, I. M., Biocompatibility of a silicon based peripheral nerve electrode. Biomater. Med. Devices Artif. Organs, 10(2), 103, 1982
69. White, R. L., Roberts, L. A., Cotter, N. E., and Kwon, O., Thin film electrode fabrication techniques, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 405, 183, 1983
70. Szeto, A. Y. J. and Lyman, J., Comparison of codes for sensory feedback using electrocutaneous tracking, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 5, 367, 1977
71. Szeto, A. Y., Lyman, J., and Prior, R. E., Electrocutaneous pulse rate and pulse width psychometric functions, Hum. Factors, 21(1), 241, 1979a
72. Solomonow, M. and Prados, O., Further evidence of learning in the tactile sense, Proc. IEEE Front. Eng. Health Care, 339, 1982
73. Saunders, F. A., Electrotactile sensory aids, in Proc. 4th Annu. Meeting of Biomedical Engineering Soc., Los Angeles, 1973
74. Szeto, A. Y, J., Electrocutaneous code pairs for artificial sensory communication systems, Ann. Biomed. Eng ., 10, 175, 1982
75. Riso, R. R., Szeto, A. J., and Keith, M. W., Comparison of subdermal versus surface electrocutaneous stimulation, Proc. IEEE Front. Eng. Health Care, 343, 1982
76. Riso, R. R. and Ignagni, A. R., Optimization of the number of frequency levels for use with discrete level FM sensory feedback codes, in preparation
77. Riso, R. R., Ignagni, A. R., and Keith, M. W., Effects of stimulus parameters on the discriminability of frequency modulation codes for electrocutaneous sensory substitution systems, in Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Rehabilitation Engineering, Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America, Washington, D.C., 1984, 435
78. Riso, R. R. and Ignagni, A. R., Transition accentuation improves FM sensory feedback codes, in Proc. 39th Annu. Conf. on Engineering in Medicine and Biology, Baltimore, 1986, 226
79. Sherrick, C. E. and Rogers, R., Apparent haptic movement. Percept. Psychophys., 1, 175, 1966
80. Weinstein, S., Intensive and extensive aspects of tactile sensitivity as a function of body part, sex and laterality, in The Skin Senses, Kensalo, D. R., Ed., Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 196, 195
81. Riso, R. R. and Ignagni, A. R., Optimization of electrocutaneous spatial position codes to provide sensory augmentation for enhanced control of FES orthoses. Hum. Factors, in preparation
82. Woodworth, R. S., Experimental Psychology, Henry Holt, New York, 1938
83. Eskildsen, P., Morris, A., Collins, C., and Bach-y-Rita, P., Simultaneous and successive cutaneous two-point thresholds for vibration, Psychonomic Soc., 14, 146, 1969
84. Jones, M. B. and Vierck, C. J., Jr., Length discrimination on the skin. Am. J. Psychol., 86, 49, 1973
85. Geldard, F. A. and Sherrick, C. E., Multiple cutaneous stimulation: the discrimination of vibratory pattern, J. Accoust. Soc. Am., 37, 191, 1965
86. Collins, C. C. and Bach-y-Rita, P., Transmission of pictorial information through the skin, Adv. Biol. Med. Phys., 14, 285, 1973
87. Kirman, J. H., Tactile apparent movement: the effects of interstimulus onset interval and stimulus duration, Percept. Psychophys., 15, 1, 1974
88. Kirman, J. H., The effect of number of stimulators on the optimal interstimulus onset interval in tactile apparent movement. Percept. Psychophys., 17, 263, 1975
89. Alles, D. S., Information transmission by phantom sensations, IEEE Trans. Man-Mach. Syst., 11(1), 85, 1970
90. Mann, R. W. and Reimers, S. D., Kinesthetic sensing for the EMG controlled " Boston Arm", IEEE Trans. Man Mach. Syst., 11(1), 110, 1970
91. Mann, R. W., Prostheses control and feedback via noninvasive skin and invasive peripheral nerve techniques, in Neural Organization and Its Relevance to Prosthetics, Fields, W. S., Ed., Intercontinental, New York, 1973, 177
92. Geldard, F. A., Sensory Saltation, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975
93. Geldard, F. A. and Sherrick, C. E., The cutaneous " rabbit": a perceptual illusion. Science, 178, 178, 1972
94. Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, W., The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1949
95. Garner, W. R., Uncertainty and Structure as Psychological Concepts, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962
96. Hick, W. E., On the rate of gain of information, Q. J. Exp. Psychol., 4, 11, 1952
97. Rollman, G. B., Electrocutaneous stimulation, in Proc. Conf. on Cutaneous Communication Systems and Devices, The Psychonomic Society Inc., Monterey, CA, 1973, 38
98. Pollack, L, The information of elementary auditory display, J. Accoust. Soc. Am., 24, 745, 1952
99. Eriksen, C. W. and Hake, H. W., Absolute judgements as a function of stimulus range and number of stimulus and response categories, J. Exp. Psychol., 49, 323, 1955
100. Galanter, E., Contemporary psychophysics, in New Directions in Psychology, Galanter, E., Hess, E. H., and Mandler, G., Eds., Holt Rinehart & Winston, New York, 1962
101. Miller, G. A., The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information, Psychol. Rev., 63, 81, 1956
102. Garner, W. R., An information analysis of absolute judgments of loudness, J. Exp. Psychol., 46, 373, 1953
103. Kato, I., Kumamato, S., Tamura, S., and Tsunekawa, Y., Human cognitional ability for electric stimulation signals, in Advances in External Control of Human Extremities, E.T.A.N., Dubrovnik, 1970, 69
104. Szeto, A. Y. J., Prior, R. E., and Lyman, J., Electrocutaneous tracking: a methodology for evaluating sensory feedback codes, IEEE Trans. Biomed . Eng ., 26, 47, 1979b
105. Riso, R. R. and Ignagni, A. R., Electrocutaneous sensory augmentation affords more precise shoulder position command generation for FNS orthoses, in Proc. 8th Annu. Conf. on Rehabilitation Technology, Brubaker, C and Hobson, D. A., Eds., Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America, Washington, D.C., 1985, 228
106. Peckham, P. H., Mortimer, J. T., and Marsolais, E. B., Controlled prehension and release in the C5 quadriplegic elicited by functional electrical stimulation of the forearm musculature, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 8, 369, 1980
107. Schmidl, H., The importance of information feedback in prostheses for upper limbs, Prosth. Ortho Int., 1, 21, 1977
108. Childress, D. S., Closed loop control in prosthetic systems: historical perspective, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 8, 293, 1980
109. Lovely, D. F., Hudgins, B. S., and Scott, R. N., Implantable myoelectric control system with sensory feedback, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 23, 87, 1985
110. Kato, I., Yamakawa, S., Ichikawa, K., and Sano, M., Multifunctional myoelectric hand prosthesis with pressure sensory feedback system, in Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on External Control, Dubrovik, Yugoslavia, 1970, 155
111. Prior, R. E., Case, P. A., and Lyman, J., Hook opening feedback for the below elbow amputee, Proc. San Diego Biomed. Symp., 16, 91, 1976
112. Shannon, G. F., A myoelectrically controlled prosthesis with sensory feedback, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 17, 73, 1979
113. Scott, R. N., Brittain, R. H., Caldwell, R. R., Cameron, A. B., and Dunfield, V. A., Sensory feedback system compatible with myoelectric control, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 18, 65, 1980
114. Shannon, G. F., A comparison of alternative means of providing sensory feedback on upper limb prostheses, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 14, 289, 1976
115. Prior, R. E., Lyman, J., and Case, P. A., Supplemental sensory feedback for the VA/NU myoelectric hand: background and feasibility. Bull. Prosth. Res., 10-26, 170, 1976
116. Prior, R. E., Case, P. A., Scott, C. M., and Lyman, J., A myoelectric hand with supplemental sensory feedback, Proc. San Diego Biomed. Symp., 16, 91, 1976
117. Prior, R. E. and Lyman, J., Electrocutaneous sensory feedback for artificial limbs: single electrode encoding of grasp force and hand position from an externally energized hand, in Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on External Control of Human Extremities, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, 1975
118. Caldwell, R. R., Buck, C. S., Lovely, D. F., and Scott, R. W., A myoelectric B/E prosthetic system for young children, in Proc. 8th Annu. Conf. on Rehabilitation Technology, Brubaker, C. and Hobson, D. A., Eds., Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America, Washington, D.C., 1985, 69
119. Scott, R. N., Lovely, D. F., and Hudgin, B. S., Sensory feedback in upper-extremity prosthetics, in Proc. 9th Annu. Conf. on Rehabilitation Technology, Donath, M., Friedman, M. H., and Carlson, M., Eds., Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America, Washington, D.C., 1986, 23
120. Kawamura, J., Sweda, O., Kazutaka, H., Kazuyoshi, N., and Isobe, S., Sensory feedback systems for the lower-limb prosthesis, J. Osaka Rosai Hosp., 5(2), 104, 1981
121. Riso, R. R., Sensory augmentation for enhanced control of FNS systems, in Ergonomics in Rehabilitation, Mital, A., Ed., Taylor and Francis, London, 1988, 253
122. Riso, R. R. and Ignagni, A. R., Sensory feedback of machine state and shoulder position command information for use with FNS hand orthoses, in Proc. 9th Annu. Conf. on Rehab. Tech., Donath, M., Friedman, M. H., and Carlson, M ., Eds., Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America, Washington, D.C., 1986, 325
123. Phillips, C. A. and Petrofsky, J. S., Cognitive feedback as a sensory adjunct to FES neural prosthesis, J. Neurol. Orthop. Surg., 6, 231, 1985
124. Petrofsky, J. S., Phillips, C. A., Douglas, R., and Larson, P., A computer controlled walking system: the combination of an orthosis with functional electrical stimulation, J. Clin. Eng., 11(2), 121, 1986
125. Schmid, H. P. and Bekey, G. A., Tactile information processing by human operators in control systems, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern., 8(12), 860, 1978
126. Collins, C. C., Tactile television: mechanical and electrical image projection, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 11, 85, 1970
127. Collins, C. C., Scadden, L. A., and Alden, A. B., Mobility studies with a tactile imaging device, in Proc. 4th Conf. on Sys. Devices for the Disabled, Seattle, WA, 1977
128. Craig, J. C., Pictorial and abstract cutaneous displays, in Cutaneous Communication Systems and Devices, Geldard, F. A., Ed., Psychonomic Society, Austin, TX, 1974, 78
129. Tachi, S., Tanie, K., Komoriya, K., and Abe, M., Electrocutaneous communication in a guide dog robot (MELDOG), IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 32, 461, 1985
130. Melen, R. D. and Meindl, J. D., Electrocutaneous stimulation in a reading aid for the blind, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 18, 1, 1971
131. Clark, P. and Savoie, R., Development of an advanced optical character recognition speech-output accessory for blind people. Bull. Prosth. Res., 10-35, 199, 1981
132. Kurzweil, R. C., Kurzweil reading machine for the blind, Proc. Johns Hopkins First Natl. Search Appl. Personal Comput. Aid Handicapped, 1, 236, 1981
133. Saunders, F. A., An electrotactile sound detector for the deaf, IEEE Trans. Audio Electroaccoust., 21, 285, 1973
134. Sparks, D. W., Kul, D. E., Edmonds, A. E., and Gray, G. P., Investigating the MESA (Multipoint Electrotactile Speech Aid): the transmission of segmental features of speech, J. Accoust. Soc. Am., 63, 246, 1978
135. Engelman, S. and Rosov, R. J., Tactual hearing experiment with deaf and hearing subjects, J. Exceptional Children, 41, 243, 1975
136. Sherrick, C. E., Basic and applied research on tactile aids for deaf people: progress and prospects, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 63, 246, 1984
137. Spens, K. E., Tactile speech communication aids for the deaf: a comparison. Speech Transmission Laboratory: Quarterly Progress and Status Report, Vol. 4, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1980, 23
138. Tacticon Corporation, product brochure, 4295 Oakwood Court, Concord, CA, 94521
139. Wertz, R. T., Divenyi, P. L., Skelbeck, G., and Saunders, F. A., An electrotactile aid for treating sensorineural hearing loss and aphasia, in Rehabilitation R & D Progress Reports, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C., 1984, 165
140. Oiler, D. K., Ellers, R., Vergara, K., and LaVoie, E., Tactual vocoders in a multisensory program training speech production and reception, Volta Rev., 21, 1986
141. Brooks, P., Chung, K., Frost, B., and Mason, J., Evaluation of a tactile vocoder, paper presented at the Tactual Communications Conf., Wichita, KS, 1982
142. Oiler, D. K. and Ellers, R. E., Classroom training strategies for tactual vocoders based on hardware and development considerations, paper presented at the Tactual Communications Conf., Wichita, KS, 1982
143. Saunders, F. A., personal communications, 1986
144. Nashold, B. S., Golner, J. L., Mullen, J. B., and Bright, D. S., Long-term pain control by direct peripheral nerve stimulation, J. Bone Jt. Surg., 64-A(l), 1, 1982
145. Engebretson, A. M. and O'Connell, M. P., Implementation of a microprocessor based tactile hearing prosthesis, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 33(7), 712, 1986