Male nuptial gifts: Phenotypic consequences and evolutionary implications

Insect Reproduction

Volumn , Issue , 2018, Pages 215-242

  Boggs, Carol L ^a,b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85051568999     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781351073608     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. Downes, J. A., Feeding and mating in the insectivorous Ceratopogoninae (Diptera), Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can., 104, 1978
2. Morris, G. K., Mating systems, paternal investment and aggressive behavior of acoustic Orthoptera, Fla. Entomol., 62, 9, 1979
3. Bell, P. D., Opportunistic feeding by the female tree cricket, Oecanthus nigricornis (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), Can. Entomol., 112, 432, 1980
4. Bidochka, B. J. and Snedden, W. A., Effect of nuptial feeding on the mating behaviour of female ground crickets, Can. J. Zool., 63, 207, 1985
5. Thornhill, R., Sexual selection and nuptial feeding behavior in Bittacus apicalis (Insecta: Mecoptera), Am. Nat., 110, 529, 1976
6. Thornhill, R. and Alcock, J., The Evolution of Insect Mating Systems, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1983
7. Svensson, B. G. and Petersson, E., Sex-role reversed courtship behaviour, sexual dimorphism and nuptial gifts in the dance fly, Empis borealis (L.), Ann. Zool. Fennici, 24, 323, 1987
8. Boggs, C. L. and Gilbert, L. E., Male contribution to egg production in butterflies: evidence for transfer of nutrients at mating, Science, 206, 83, 1979
9. Smith, R. L., Evolution of exclusive postcopulatory paternal care in the insects, Fla. Entomol., 63,65, 1980
10. Nalepa, C. A. and Jones, S. C., Evolution of monogamy in termites, Biol. Rev., 66, 83, 1991
11. Tallamy, D. W., Nourishment and the evolution of paternal investment in subsocial arthropods, in Nourishment and Evolution in Insect Societies, Hunt, J. and Nalepa, C., Eds., Westview Press, Boulder, 1994
12. Thornhill, R., Sexual selection and paternal investment in insects, Am. Nat., 110, 153, 1976
13. Zeh, D. W. and Smith, R. L., Paternal investment by terrestrial arthropods, Am. Zool., 25, 785, 1985
14. Ridley, M., Mating frequency and fecundity in insects, Biol. Rev., 63, 509, 1988
15. Parker, G. A. and Simmons, L. W., Nuptial feeding in insects: theoretical models of male and female interests, Ethology, 82, 3, 1989
16. Thornhill, R., Adaptive female-mimicking behavior in a scorpionfly, Science, 205, 412, 1979
17. Gwynne, D. T., Nuptial feeding behaviour and female choice of mates in Harpobittacus similis (Mecoptera: Bittacidae), J. Aust. Entomol. Soc., 23, 271, 1984
18. Downes, J. A., The feeding and mating behaviour of the specialized Empidinae (Diptera): observations on four species of Rhamphomyia in the high arctic and general discussion, Can. Entomol., 102, 769, 1970
19. Kessel, E. L., The mating activities of balloon flies, Syst. Zool., 4, 97, 1955
20. Thornhill, R., Panorpa (Mecoptera: Panorpidae) scorpionflies: systems for understanding resource-defense polygyny and alternative male reproductive efforts, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 12, 355, 1981
21. Steele, R. H., Courtship feeding in Drosophila subobscura. I. The nutritional significance of courtship feeding, Anim. Behav., 34, 1087, 1986
22. Leopold, R. A., The role of male accessory glands in insect reproduction, Annu. Rev. Entomol., 199, 1976
23. Chen, P. S., The functional morphology and biochemistry of insect male accessory glands and their secretions, Annu. Rev. Entomol., 29, 233, 1984
24. Kasuga, H., Aigaki, T. and Osani, M., System for supply of free arginine in the spermatophore of Bombyx mori: arginine liberating activities of contents of male reproductive glands, Insect Biochem., 17, 317, 1987
25. Cheeseman, M. T. and Gillott, C., Long hyaline gland discharge and multiple spermatophore formation by the male grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes. Physiol. Entomol., 14, 257, 1989
26. Friedel, T. and Gillott, C., Contribution of male-produced proteins to vitellogenesis in Melanoplus sanguinipes, J. Insect Physiol., 23, 145, 1977
27. Osani, M., Aigaki, T., Kasuga, H. and Yonezawa, Y., Role of arginase transferred from the vesicula seminalis during mating and changes in amino acid pools of the spermatophore after ejaculation in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Insect Biochem., 16, 879, 1986
28. Dickinson, J. L. and Rutowski, R. L. 1989. The function of the mating plug in the chalcedon checkerspot butterfly, Anim. Behav., 38, 154, 1989
29. Davey, K. G., Reproduction in the Insects, Freeman, San Francisco, 1965
30. Rutowski, R. L. and Gilchrist, G. W., Copulation in Colias eurytheme (Lepidoptera: Pieridae): patterns and frequency, J. Zool. London (A), 209, 115, 1986
31. Markow, T. A., Drosophila males provide a material contribution to offspring sired by other males, Funct. Ecol., 2, 77, 1988
32. Gerber, G. H., Evolution of the methods of spermatophore formation in pterygotan insects, Can. Entomol., 102, 358, 1970
33. Rutowski, R. L., Newton, M., and Schaefer, J., Interspecific variation in the size of the nutrient investment made by male butterflies during copulation, Evolution, 37, 708, 1983
34. Boucher, L. and Huignard, J., Transfer of male secretions from the spermatophore to the female insect in Caryedon serratus (01.): analysis of the possible trophic role of these secretions. J. Insect Physiol., 33, 949, 1987
35. Svard, L. and Wiklund, C., Mass and production rate of ejaculates in relation to monandry/polyandry in butterflies, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 24, 395, 1989
36. Gwynne, D. T., Sexual difference theory: mormon crickets show role reversal in mate choice, Science, 213, 779, 1981
37. Simmons, L. W., Male size, mating potential and lifetime reproductive succes in the field cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus (De Geer), Anim. Behav., 36, 372, 1988
38. Hayashi, F., Male mating costs in two insect species (Protohermes, Megaloptera) that produce large spermatophores, Anim. Behav., 45, 343, 1993
39. Alexander, R. D. and Otte, D., The evolution of genitalia and mating behavior in crickets (Gryllidae) and other Orthoptera, Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., 133, 1967
40. Sakaluk, S. K. and Cade, W. H., Female mating frequency and progeny production in singly and doubly mated house and field crickets. Can. J. Zool., 58, 404, 1980
41. Evans, A. R., Mating systems and reproductive strategies in three australian gryllid crickets: Bobilla victoriae Otte, Balamara gidya Otte and Teleogryllus commodus (Walker) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae: Nemobiinae; Trigonidiinae; Gryllinae), Ethology, 78, 21, 1988
42. Mays, D. L., Mating behaviour of Nemobiinae crickets Hygronemobius, Nemobius and Pteronemobius (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), Fla. Entomol., 54, 13, 1971
43. Davey, K. G., The evolution of the spermatophore in insects, Proc. R. Entomol. Soc. London Ser. A, 35, 107, 1960
44. Marshall, L. D., Male nutrient investment in the Lepidoptera: what nutrients should males invest?, Am. Nat., 120, 273, 1980
45. 65Zn at mating in Heliothis virescens, Environ. Entomol., 9, 119, 1980
46. Pivnick, K. A. and McNeil, J. N. Puddling in butterflies: sodium affects reproductive success in Thymelicus lineola, Physiol. Entomol., 12, 461, 1987
47. Adler, P. H. and Pearson, D. L., Why do male butterflies visit mud puddles? Can. J. ZooL, 60, 322, 1982
48. Arms, K., Feeny, P., and Lederhouse, R. C., Sodium: stimulus for puddling behavior by tiger swallowtail butterflies. Science, 185, 372, 1974
49. Boggs, C. L. and Jackson, L. A., Mud puddling by butterflies is not a simple matter, Ecol. Entomol., 16,123, 1991
50. Sculley, C. and Boggs, C.L. unpublished manuscript
51. Mullins, D. E. and Keil, C. B., Paternal investment of urates in cockroaches, Nature, 283, 567, 1980
52. Schal, C. and Bell, W. J., Ecological correlates of paternal investment of urates in a tropical cockroach, Science, 218, 170, 1982
53. Mullins, D. E., Keil, C. B., and White, R. H., Maternal and paternal nitrogen investment in Blattella germanica (L.) (Dictyoptera; Blattellidae), J. Exp. Biol., 162, 55, 1992
54. Sierra, J. R., Woogon, W.-D., and Schmid, H., Transfer of cantharidin during copulation from the adult male to the female Lytta vesicatoria (“Spanish flies”), Experientia, 32, 142, 1976
55. Alcock, J. and Hadley, N. F., Tests of alternative hypotheses for assortative mating by size: A comparison of two meloid beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae), J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., 60, 41, 1987
56. Achey unpublished, cited in Brower, L. P., New perspective on the migration biology of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus L. in Migration: Mechanisms and Adaptive Significance, Rankin, M. A., Ed., Univ. of Texas Contributions in Marine Science, Austin, TX, 1985, 748
57. Brown, K. S., Adult-obtained pyrrolizidine alkaloids defend ithomiine butterflies against a spider predator, Nature, 309, 707, 1984
58. Dussourd, D. E., Ubik, K., Harris, C., Resch, J., Meinwald, J., and Eisner, T., Biparental defensive endowment of eggs with acquired plant alkaloid in the moth Utethesia ornatrix, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 992, 1988
59. Marshall, L. D. and McNeil, J. N., Spermatophore mass as an estimate of male nutrient investment: A closer look in Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Fund. Ecol., 3, 605, 1989
60. Buskirk, R. E., Frohlich, C., and Ross, K. G., The natural selection of sexual cannibalism, Am. Nat., 123, 612, 1984
61. Morris, G. K., Gwynne, D. T., Klimas, D. E., and Sakaluk, S. K., Virgin male mating advantage in a primitive acoustic insect (Orthoptera: Haglidae), J. Insect Behav., 2, 173, 1989
62. Hinton, H. E., Sperm transfer in insects and the evolution of haemocoelic insemination, in Insect Reproduction, Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society, London, Highnam, K. C., Ed., Royal Ent. Soc. London, 2, 95, 1964
63. Silbergleid, R. E., Shepherd, J. G., and Dickinson, J. L., Eunuchs: The role of apyrene sperm in Lepidoptera?, Am. Nat., 123, 255, 1984
64. Boggs, C. L., Selection pressures affecting male nutrient investment at mating in heliconiine butterflies, Evolution, 35, 931, 1981
65. Gwynne, D. T., Courtship feeding and the fitness of female katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Evolution, 42, 545, 1988
66. Boggs, C. L., A general model of the role of male-donated nutrients in female insects’ reproduction, Am. Nat., 136, 598, 1990
67. Wedell, N., Mating effort or paternal investment: incorporation rate and cost of male donations in the wartbiter. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol, 32, 239, 1993
68. Greenfield, M. D., The question of paternal investment in Lepidoptera: male-contributed proteins in Plodia interpunctella, Int. J. Invert. Repro., 5, 323, 1982
69. Boggs, C. L. and Watt, W. B., Population structure of pierid butterflies. IV. Genetic and physiological investment in offspring by male Colias, Oecologia, 50, 320, 1981
70. Bowen, B. J., Codd, C. G., and Gwynne, D. T., The katydid spermatophore (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): male nutritional investment and its fate in the mated female, Aust. J. Zool., 32, 23, 1984
71. Oberhauser, K. S., Rate of ejaculate breakdown and intermating intervals in monarch butterflies, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 31, 367, 1992
72. Rutowski, R. L., Production and use of secretions passed by males at copulation in Pieris protodice (Lepidoptera, Pieridae), Psyche, 91, 141, 1984
73. Huignard, J., Transfer and fate of male secretions deposited in the spermatophore of females of Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Coleoptera Bruchidae), J. Insect Physiol., 29, 55, 1983
74. Khalifa, A., Spermatophore production in Trichoptera and some other insects, Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 100, 18, 1949
75. Svard, L. and Wiklund, C., Fecundity, egg weight and longevity in relation to multiple matings in females of the monarch butterfly, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 23, 39, 1988
76. Sakaluk, S. K. and Snedden, W. A., Nightly calling durations of male sagebrush crickets, Cyphoderris strepitans: size, mating and seasonal effects, Oikos, 57, 153, 1990
77. Simmons, L. W., Teale, R. J., Maier, M., Standish, R. J., Bailey, W. J., and Wither, P. C., Some costs of reproduction for male bushcrickets, Requena verticalis (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): allocating resources to mate attraction and nuptial feeding, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 31, 57, 1992
78. Gwynne, D. T., Testing parental investment and the control of sexual selection in katydids: The operational sex ratio, Am. Nat., 136, 474, 1990
79. Oberhauser, K. S., Effects of spermatophores on male and female monarch butterfly reproductive success, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 25, 237, 1989
80. Rutowski, R. L., The butterfly as an honest salesman, Anim. Behav., 27, 1269, 1979
81. Burpee, D. M. and Sakaluk, S. K., Repeated matings offset costs of reproduction in female crickets, Evol. Ecol., 7, 1, 1993
82. Sakaluk, S. K., Spermatophore size and its role in the reproductive behaviour of the cricket, Gryllodes supplicans (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), Can. J. Zool., 63, 1652, 1985
83. Svard, L. and Wiklund, C., Different ejaculate delivery strategies at first versus subsequent matings in the swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon L., Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 18, 325, 1986
84. Royer, L. and McNeil, J. N., Male investment in the European com borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hiibner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Impact on female longevity and reproductive performance, Fund. Ecol, 7, 209, 1993
85. Sakaluk, S. K. and Smith, R. L., Inheritance of male parental investment in an insect, Am. Nat., 132, 594, 1988
86. Sakaluk, S. K., Burpee, D. M., and Smith, R. L., Phenotypic and genetic variation in the stridulatory organs of male decorated crickets, Gryllodes sigillatus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), Can. J. Zool, 70, 453, 1992
87. Gwynne, D. T., Bowen, B. J., and Codd, C. G., The function of the katydid spermatophore and its role in fecundity and insemination (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Aust. J. Zool., 32, 15, 1984
88. Gwynne, D. T., Mate selection by female katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae, Conocephalus nigropleurum), Anim. Behav., 30, 734, 1982
89. Wedell, N., Protandry and mate assessment in the wartbiter Decticus verrucivorus (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol, 31, 301, 1992
90. Svard, L., Parental investment in a monandrous butterfly, Parargae aegeria, Oikos, 45, 66, 1985
91. Reiss, M. J., The allometry of reproduction: why larger species invest relatively less in their offspring, J. Theor. Biol, 113, 529, 1985
92. Oberhauser, K. S., Male monarch butterfly spermatophore mass and mating strategies, Anim. Behav., 36, 1384, 1988
93. George, J. A. and Howard, M. G., Insemination without spermatophores in the oriental fruit moth, Grapholitha molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Can. Entomol., 100, 190, 1964
94. Zuk, M., The effects of gregarine parasites, body size, and time of day on spermatophore production and sexual selection in field crickets, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol, 21, 65, 1987
95. Simmons, L. W., Some constraints on reproduction for male bushcrickets, Requena verticalis (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): diet, size and parasite load, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 32, 135, 1993
96. Butlin, R. K., Woodhatch, C. W., and Hewitt, G. M., Male spermatophore investment increases female fecundity in a grasshopper, Evolution, 41, 221, 1987
97. Simmons, L. W. and Bailey, W. J., Resource influenced sex roles of zaprochiline tettigoniids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Evolution, 44, 1853, 1990
98. Wedell, N. and Arak, A., The wartbiter spermatophore and its effect on female reproductive output (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae, Decticus verrucivorus), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 24, 117, 1989
99. Wedell, N., Sperm competition selects for nuptial feeding in a bushcricket. Evolution, 45, 1975, 1991
100. Rutowski, R. L., Gilchrist, G. W., and Terkanian, B., Female butterflies mated with recently mated males show reduced reproductive output, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol, 20, 319, 1987
101. Markow, T. A., Gallagher, P. D., and Krebs, R. A., Ejaculate-derived nutritional contribution and female reproductive success in Drosophila mojavensis (Patterson & Crow), Fund. Ecol, 4, 67, 1990
102. Gwynne, D. T., Male mating effort, confidence of paternity and insect sperm competition, in Sperm Competition and the Evolution of Animal Mating Systems, Smith, R. L., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 117, 1984
103. Tuomi, J., Hakala, T., and Haukioja, E., Alternative concepts of reproductive effort, costs of reproduction and selection in life-history evolution, Am. Zool., 23, 25, 1983
104. Woods, H. A., Boggs, C. L., and Karlsson, B., unpublished manuscript
105. Svard, L. and McNeil, J. N., Female benefit, male risk: Polyandry in the true army worm Pseudaletia unipunda, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 35, 319, 1994
106. Boggs, C. L. and Ross, C. L., The effect of adult food limitation on life history traits in Speyeria mormonia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), Ecology, 74, 433, 1993
107. Gwynne, D. T. and Dodson, G. N., Nonrandom provisioning by the digger wasp, Palmodes laeviventris (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae), Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am., 76, 434, 1983
108. Boggs, C. L., Nutritional and life-history determinants of resource allocation in holometabolous insects, Am. Nat., 117, 692, 1981
109. Zalucki, M. P., Sex around the milkweed patch -the significance of patches of host plants in monarch reproduction, in Biology and Conservation of the Monarch Butterfly, Malcolm, S. B. and Zalucki, M. P., Eds., Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, 69, 1993
110. Brower, L. P., New perspective on the migration biology of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus L. in Migration: Mechanisms and Adaptive Significance, Rankin, M. A., Ed., University of Texas Contributions in Marine Science, Austin, TX, 748, 1985
111. van Hook, T., Non-random mating in monarch butterflies overwintering in Mexico, in Biology and Conservation of the Monarch Butterfly, Malcolm, S. B. and Zalucki, M. P., Eds., Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, 49, 1993
112. Wells, H., Wells, P. H., and Rogers, S. H., Is multiple mating an adaptive feature of monarch butterfly winter aggregation?, in Biology and Conservation of the Monarch Butterfly, Malcolm, S. B. and Zalucki, M. P., Eds., Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, 61, 1993
113. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Reproductive Success: Studies of Individual Variation in Contrasting Breeding Systems, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988
114. Pitnick, S., Markow, T. A., and Riedy, M. F., Transfer of ejaculate and incorporation of male-derived substances by females in the Nannoptera species group (Diptera: Drosophilidae), Evolution, 45, 774, 1991
115. Boldyrev, B. T., Contributions à l’étude de las structure des spermatophores et des particularités de la copulation chez Locustodea et Gryllodea, Horae Soc. Entomol. Ross., 41, 1, 1915
116. Gwynne, D. T., Male nutritional investment and the evolution of sexual differences in the Tettigoniidae and other Orthoptera, in Orthopteran Mating Systems: Sexual Competition in a Diverse Group of Insects, Gwynne, D. T. and Morris, G., Eds., Westview Press, Boulder, 337, 1983
117. Trivers, R. L., Parental investment and sexual selection, in Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, Campbell, B., Ed., Aldine-Atherton, Chicago, 1972
118. Darwin, C., The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, John Murray, London, 1871
119. Fisher, R. A., The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1930
120. Bateman, A. J., Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila, Heredity, 2, 349, 1948
121. Williams, G. C., Adaptation and Natural Selection, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1966
122. Sakaluk, S. K., Male crickets feed females to ensure complete sperm transfer, Science, 223, 609, 1984
123. Gwynne, D. T., Courtship feeding in katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): investment in offspring or in obtaining fertilizations?, Am. Nat., 128, 342, 1986
124. Reinhold, K. and Heller, K.-G., The ultimate function of nuptial feeding in the bushcricket Piecilimon veluchianus (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae: Phaneropterinae), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 32, 55, 1993
125. Alexander, R. D. and Borgia, G., On the origin and basis of the male-female phenomenon, in Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects, Blum, M. S. and Blum, N. A., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1979
126. Low, B. S., Environmental uncertainties and the parental strategies of marsupials and placentals, Am. Nat., 112, 197, 1978
127. Quinn, J. S. and Sakaluk, S. K., Prezygotic male reproductive effort in insects: why do males provide more than sperm?, Fla. Entomol., 69, 84, 1986
128. Emlen, S. T. and Oring, L. W., Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems, Science, 197, 215, 1977
129. Gwynne, D. T., Role-reversal in katydids: habitat influences reproductive behaviour (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae, Metaballus sp.), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 16, 355, 1985
130. Clutton-Brock, T. H. and Parker, G. A., Potential reproductive rates and the operation of sexual selection, Q. Rev. Biol., 67, 437, 1992
131. Gilbert, L. E., Postmating female odor in Heliconius butterflies: A male-contributed antiaphrodisiac?. Science, 193, 419, 1976
132. Rutowski, R. L., The form and function of ascending flights in Colias butterflies, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 3, 163, 1978
133. Rutowski, R. L., Evidence for mate choice in a sulphur butterfly (Colias eurytheme), Z. Tierpsychoi, 70,103, 1985
134. Watt, W. B., Carter, P. A., and Donohue, K., Females’ choice of “good genotypes” as mates is promoted by an insect mating system, Science, 233, 1187, 1986
135. Borgia, G., Sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems, in Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects, Blum, M. S. and Blum, N. A., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 19, 1979
136. Gwynne, D. T. and Simmons, L. W., Experimental reversal of courtship roles in an insect, Nature, 346,172, 1990
137. Gwynne, D. T., Sexual selection and sexual differences in mormon crickets (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae, Anabrus simplex). Evolution, 38, 1011, 1984
138. Rutowski, R. L., Courtship solicitation by females of the checkered white butterfly, Pieris protodice, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 7, 113, 1980
139. Rutowski, R. L., Long, C. E., Marshall, L. D., and Vetter, R. S., Courtship solicitation by Coiias females (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), Am. Midi. Nat., 105, 334, 1981
140. Simmons, L. W., Female choice in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus (De Geer), Anim. Behav., 34,1463, 1986
141. Boggs, C. L., Resource allocation and reproductive strategies in several heliconiine species, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1979
142. Boggs, C. L., personal observation
143. Watt, W. B., Eggs, enzymes, and evolution: natural genetic variants change insect fecundity, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 10608, 1992
144. Rutowski, R. L., Epigamic selection by males as evidenced by courtship partner preferences in the checkered white butterfly (Pieris protodice), Anim. Behav., 30, 108, 1982
145. Sugawara, T., Stretch reception in the bursa copulatrix of the butterfly, Pieris rapae crucivora, and its role in behaviour, J. Comp. Physiol., 130, 191, 1979
146. Gwynne, D. T., Courtship feeding in katydids benefits the mating male’s offspring, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 23, 373, 1988
147. Boggs, C. L., unpublished data
148. Markow, T. A. and Ankney, P. F., Drosophila males contribute to oogenesis in a multiple mating species, Science, 224, 302, 1984
149. Gatto, M., Matessi, C., and Slobodkin, L. B., Physiological profiles and demographic rates in relation to food quantity and predictability: An optimization approach, Evol. Ecol., 3, 1, 1989