Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa

Landscape and Urban Planning

Volumn 180, Issue , 2018, Pages 249-261

  du Toit, Marié J ^a   Cilliers, Sarel S ^a   Dallimer, Martin ^b   Goddard, Mark ^b   Guenat, Solène ^b   Cornelius, Susanna F ^a  

^a NORTH WEST UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Challenges; Cultural; Green space; Provisioning; Regulating; Supporting

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS; URBAN PLANNING;

CHALLENGES; CULTURAL; GREEN SPACES; PROVISIONING; REGULATING; SUPPORTING;

ECOSYSTEMS;

CAPACITY BUILDING; CLIMATE CHANGE; CULTURAL INFLUENCE; ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; EQUITY; GREENSPACE; INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING; LITERATURE REVIEW; PERCEPTION; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CONFLICT; TRADE-OFF; URBAN PLANNING;

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 85048933822     PISSN: 01692046     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.06.001     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Adekunle, M.F., Agbaje, B.M., Kolade, V.O., Public perception of ecosystem service functions of peri - urban forest for sustainable management in Ogun State. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 7:6 (2013), 410–416, 10.5897/ajest2012.1411.
2. Ahern, J., Cilliers, S., Niemelä J., The concept of ecosystem services in adaptive urban planning and design: A framework for supporting innovation. Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014), 254–259, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.020.
3. Anchang, J.Y., Ananga, E.O., Pu, R., An efficient unsupervised index based approach for mapping urban vegetation from IKONOS imagery. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 50 (2016), 211–220 1016/j.jag.2016.04.001.
4. Anderson, P. L., Okereke, C., Rudd, A., & Parnell, S. (2013). Regional Assessment of Africa, in: Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities (T. Elmqvist, M. Fragkias, J. Goodness, B. Güneralp, P. J. Marcotullio, R. I. McDonald, S. Parnell, M. Schewenius, M. Sendstad, K. C. Seto, C. Wilkinson, eds.), Springer, Netherlands, pp. 453–459. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1_23.
5. Andersson, E., Barthel, S., Borgström, S., Colding, J., Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., et al. Reconnecting cities to the biosphere: Stewardship of green infrastructure and urban ecosystem services. AMBIO 43:4 (2014), 445–453, 10.1007/s13280-014-0506-y.
6. Barau, A.S., Maconachie, R., Ludin, A.N.M., Abdulhamid, A., Urban morphology dynamics and environmental change in Kano, Nigeria. Land Use Policy 42 (2015), 307–317, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.08.007.
7. Bele, M.Y., Sonwa, D.J., Tiani, A.M., Local communities vulnerability to climate change and adaptation strategies in Bukavu in DR Congo. The Journal of Environment & Development, 2014, 10.1177/1070496514536395.
8. Bobbins, K., Culwick, C., Green growth transitions through a green infrastructure approach at the local government level: Case study for the Gauteng city-region. Journal of Public Administration 50:1 (2015), 32–49.
9. Bolnick, J., Kayuni, H. M., Mabala, R., McGranahan, G., Mitlin, D., Nkhoma, S., Oucho, J., Sabri, A., Sabry, S., Satterthwaite, D., Swilling, M., Tacoli, C., Tambulasi, R. I. C., & van Donk, M. (2006). A pro-poor urban agenda for Africa: Clarifying ecological and development issues for poor and vulnerable populations, In Human Settlements Discussion Paper Series Theme: Urban Change - 2.
10. Carreño, L., Frank, F.C., Viglizzo, E.F., Tradeoffs between economic and ecosystem services in Argentina during 50 years of land-use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 154 (2012), 68–77 10.1016/j.agee.2011.05.019.
11. Cavan, G., Lindley, S., Jalayer, F., Yeshitela, K., Pauleit, S., Renner, F., et al. Urban morphological determinants of temperature regulating ecosystem services in two African cities. Ecological Indicators 42 (2014), 43–57, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.01.025.
12. Chan, K.M.A., Guerry, A.D., Balvanera, P., Klain, S., Satterfield, T., Basurto, X., et al. Where are cultural and social in ecosystem services? A framework for constructive engagement. BioScience 62:8 (2012), 744–756, 10.1525/bio.2012.62.8.7.
13. Chishaleshale, M., Shackleton, C.M., Gambiza, J., Gumbo, D., The prevalence of planning and management frameworks for trees and green spaces in urban areas of South Africa. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 14:4 (2015), 817–825, 10.1016/j.ufug.2015.09.012.
14. Chu, E., Anguelovski, I., Roberts, D., Climate adaptation as strategic urbanism: Assessing opportunities and uncertainties for equity and inclusive development in cities. Cities 60 (2017), 378–387, 10.1016/j.cities.2016.10.016.
15. Cilliers, E.J., Future directions in urban planning and space usage compensating urban green spaces. Interdisciplinary Themes Journal, 1, 2009, 1.
16. Cilliers, J., Cilliers, S., From green to gold: A South African example of valuing urban green spaces in some residential areas in Potchefstroom. Town and Regional Planning 67 (2015), 1–12.
17. Cilliers, S., Cilliers, J., Lubbe, R., Siebert, S., Ecosystem services of urban green spaces in African countries—perspectives and challenges. Urban Ecosystems 16:4 (2013), 681–702, 10.1007/s11252-012-0254-3.
18. Conigliaro, M., Borelli, S., Salbitano, F., Urban and peri-urban forestry as a valuable strategy towards African urban sustainable development. Nature & Faune Journal 28:2 (2014), 21–26.
19. d'Amour, C.B., Reitsma, F., Baiocchi, G., Barthel, S., Güneralp, B., Erb, K.-H., et al. Future urban land expansion and implications for global croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114:34 (2017), 8939–8944.
20. Dallimer, M., Rouquette, J.R., Skinner, A.M.J., Armsworth, P.R., Maltby, L.M., Warren, P.H., et al. Contrasting patterns in species richness of birds, butterflies and plants along riparian corridors in an urban landscape. Diversity and Distributions 18:8 (2012), 742–753, 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00891.x.
21. Davenport, N.A., Shackleton, C.M., Gambiza, J., The direct use value of municipal commonage goods and services to urban households in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Land Use Policy 29:3 (2012), 548–557, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.09.008.
22. Davids, R., Rouget, M., Boon, R., Roberts, D., Identifying ecosystem service hotspots for environmental management in Durban, South Africa. Bothalia, 46(2), 2016, 10.4102/abc.v46i2.2118.
23. Davies, Z.G., Edmondson, J.L., Heinemeyer, A., Leake, J.R., Gaston, K.J., Mapping an urban ecosystem service: Quantifying above-ground carbon storage at a city-wide scale. Journal of Applied Ecology 48:5 (2011), 1125–1134, 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02021.x.
24. de Wit, M., van Zyl, H., Crookes, D., Blignaut, J., Jayiya, T., Goiset, V., et al. Including the economic value of well-functioning urban ecosystems in financial decisions: Evidence from a process in Cape Town. Ecosystem Services 2 (2012), 38–44, 10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.08.002.
25. De Zeeuw, H., Van Veenhuizen, R., Dubbeling, M., The role of urban agriculture in building resilient cities in developing countries. The Journal of Agricultural Science 149:SupplementS1 (2011), 153–163 10.1017/S0021859610001279.
26. Di Leo, N., Escobedo, F.J., Dubbeling, M., The role of urban green infrastructure in mitigating land surface temperature in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. Environment, Development and Sustainability 18 (2016), 373–392, 10.1007/s10668-015-9653-y.
27. Djibril, K., Coulibaly, A., Wang, X., Ousmane, D., Evaluating green space use and management in Abidjan City, Cote d'Ivoire. International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering 2:3 (2012), 108–116.
28. Dobbs, C., Kendal, D., Nitschke, C.R., Multiple ecosystem services and disservices of the urban forest establishing their connections with landscape structure and sociodemographics. Ecological Indicators 43 (2014), 44–55, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.02.007.
29. Donaldson-Selby, G., Hill, T., Korrubel, J., Photorealistic visualisation of urban greening in a low-cost high-density housing settlement, Durban, South Africa. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 6:1 (2007), 3–14, 10.1016/j.ufug.2006.11.001.
30. Douglas, I., The challenge of urban poverty for the use of green infrastructure on floodplains and wetlands to reduce flood impacts in intertropical Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2016, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.09.025.
31. Drechsel, P., Dongus, S., Dynamics and sustainability of urban agriculture: Examples from sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability Science 5:1 (2010), 69–78, 10.1007/s11625-009-0097-x.
32. Dubbale, D.A., Tsutsumi, J., Bendewald, M.J., Urban environmental challenges in developing cities: The case of Ethiopian Capital Addis Ababa. International Journal of Environmental, Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical Engineering 4:6 (2010), 164–169.
33. Dumenu, W.K., What are we missing? Economic value of an urban forest in Ghana. Ecosystem Services 5 (2013), 137–142, 10.1016/j.ecoser.2013.07.001.
34. Egoh, B.N., O'Farrell, P.J., Charef, A., Josephine Gurney, L., Koellner, T., Nibam Abi, H., et al. An African account of ecosystem service provision: Use, threats and policy options for sustainable livelihoods. Ecosystem Services 2 (2012), 71–81, 10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.09.004.
35. Elmqvist, T., Fragkias, M., Goodness, J., Güneralp, B., Marcotullio, P.J., McDonald, R.I., et al. Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities. 2013, Dordrecht – Springer.
36. Ernstson, H., The social production of ecosystem services: A framework for studying environmental justice and ecological complexity in urbanized landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 109:1 (2013), 7–17, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.005.
37. Ernstson, H., Sörlin, S., Ecosystem services as technology of globalization: On articulating values in urban nature. Ecological Economics 86 (2013), 274–284, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.09.012.
38. Esmail, B.A., Geneletti, D., Design and impact assessment of watershed investments: An approach based on ecosystem services and boundary work. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 62 (2017), 1–13, 10.1016/j.eiar.2016.08.001.
39. Fanan, U., Dlama, K.I., Oluseyi, I.O., Urban expansion and vegetal cover loss in and around Nigeria's Federal Capital City. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment 3:1 (2011), 1–10.
40. Feyisa, G.L., Dons, K., Meilby, H., Efficiency of parks in mitigating urban heat island effect: An example from Addis Ababa. Landscape and Urban Planning 123 (2014), 87–95, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.12.008.
41. Fragkias, M., Güneralp, B., Seto, K. C., & Goodness, J. (2013). A synthesis of global urbanization projections, in: Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities, Springer, pp. 409-435.
42. Freire, M. E., Lall, S., & Leipziger, D. (2014). Africa's Urbanisation: Challenges and Opportunities. The Growth Dialogue Working Paper No 7, The Growth Dialogue, Washington DC.
43. Gill, S.E., Handley, J.F., Ennos, A.R., Pauleit, S., Adapting cities for climate change: The role of the green infrastructure. Built Environment 33:1 (2007), 115–133, 10.2148/benv.33.1.115.
44. Goddard, M.A., Dougill, A.J., Benton, T.G., Scaling up from gardens: Biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25:2 (2010), 90–98, 10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.016.
45. Gómez-Baggethun, E., Barton, D.N., Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban planning. Ecological Economics 86 (2013), 235–245, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.08.019.
46. Goodness, J., & Anderson, P. L. (2013). Local Assessment of Cape Town: Navigating the Management Complexities of Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Services in the Cape Floristic Region, in: Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities (T. Elmqvist, M. Fragkias, J. Goodness, B. Güneralp, P. J. Marcotullio, R. I. McDonald, S. Parnell, M. Schewenius, M. Sendstad, K. C. Seto, C. Wilkinson, eds.), Springer Netherlands, pp. 461-484. 10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1_24.
47. Grewal, S.S., Grewal, P.S., Can cities become self-reliant in food?. Cities 29:1 (2012), 1–11 10.1016/j.cities.2011.06.003.
48. Güneralp, B., McDonald, R., Fragkias, M., Goodness, J., Marcotullio, P., & Seto, K. (2013). Urbanization Forecasts, Effects on Land Use, Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Services, in: Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities (T. Elmqvist, M. Fragkias, J. Goodness, B. Güneralp, P. J. Marcotullio, R. I. McDonald, S. Parnell, M. Schewenius, M. Sendstad, K. C. Seto, C. Wilkinson, eds.), Springer Netherlands, pp. 437-452. 10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1_22.
49. Gwedla, N., Shackleton, C.M., The development visions and attitudes towards urban forestry of officials responsible for greening in South African towns. Land Use Policy 42 (2015), 17–26, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.07.004.
50. Haase, D., Frantzeskaki, N., Elmqvist, T., Ecosystem services in urban landscapes: Practical applications and governance implications. AMBIO 43:4 (2014), 407–412, 10.1007/s13280-014-0503-1.
51. Hamann, M., Biggs, R., Reyers, B., Mapping social–ecological systems: Identifying ‘green-loop’ and ‘red-loop’ dynamics based on characteristic bundles of ecosystem service use. Global Environmental Change 34 (2015), 218–226, 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.07.008.
52. Hove, M., Ngwerume, E.T., Muchemwa, C., The urban crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa: A threat to human security and sustainable development. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, 2(1), 2013, 7, 10.5334/sta.ap.
53. Jorgensen, P.W., Trotter, D.C., Hill, T.R., Ecosystem services assessments in local municipal decision making in South Africa: Justification for the use of a business-based approach. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 59:2 (2015), 263–279 10(1080/09640568), 2015, 1009626.
54. Kaoma, H., Shackleton, C.M., Homestead greening is widespread amongst the urban poor in three medium-sized South African towns. Urban Ecosystems 17:4 (2014), 1191–1207, 10.1007/s11252-014-0362-3.
55. Kaoma, H., Shackleton, C.M., The direct-use value of urban tree non-timber forest products to household income in poorer suburbs in South African towns. Forest Policy and Economics 61 (2015), 104–112, 10.1016/j.forpol.2015.08.005.
56. Keniger, L.E., Gaston, K.J., Irvine, K.N., Fuller, R.A., What are the benefits of interacting with nature?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 10 (2013), 913–935, 10.3390/ijerph10030913.
57. Kessides, C., The urban transition in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for economic growth and poverty reduction. 2006, Washington D.C, World Bank, 113.
58. Kringel, R., Rechenburg, A., Kuitcha, D., Fouepe, A., Bellenberg, S., Kengne, I.M., et al. Mass balance of nitrogen and potassium in urban groundwater in Central Africa, Yaounde/Cameroon. Science of the Total Environment 547 (2016), 382–395, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.090.
59. Kuo, F.E., Sullivan, W.C., Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime?. Environment and Behavior 33:3 (2001), 343–367, 10.1177/0013916501333002.
60. Lall, S.V., Renewing expectations about Africa's cities. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 33:3 (2017), 521–539, 10.1093/oxrep/grx038.
61. Lannas, K.S.M., Turpie, J.K., Valuing the provisioning services of wetlands: Contrasting a rural wetland in lesotho with a peri-urban wetland in South Africa. Ecology and Society, 14(2), 2009, 18.
62. Liu, J., Fritz, S., van Wesenbeeck, C.F.A., Fuchs, M., You, L., Obersteiner, M., et al. A spatially explicit assessment of current and future hotspots of hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa in the context of global change. Global and Planetary Change 64:3–4 (2008), 222–235, 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.09.007.
63. Lubbe, C.S., Siebert, S.J., Cilliers, S.S., Political legacy of South Africa affects the plant diversity patterns of urban domestic gardens along a socio-economic gradient. Scientific Research and Essays 5:19 (2010), 2900–2910.
64. Luederitz, C., Brink, E., Gralla, F., Hermelingmeier, V., Meyer, M., Niven, L., et al. A review of urban ecosystem services: Six key challenges for future research. Ecosystem services 14 (2015), 98–112, 10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.05.001.
65. Lusugga Kironde, J.M., The regulatory framework, unplanned development and urban poverty: Findings from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Land Use Policy 23:4 (2006), 460–472, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.07.004.
66. Lwasa, S., Adapting urban areas in Africa to climate change: The case of Kampala. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2:3 (2010), 166–171, 10.1016/j.cosust.2010.06.009.
67. Lwasa, S., Mugagga, F., Wahab, B., Simon, D., Connors, J.P., Griffith, C., A meta-analysis of urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry in mediating climate change. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 13 (2015), 68–73, 10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.003.
68. Lyytimäki, J., Sipilä M., Hopping on one leg – The challenge of ecosystem disservices for urban green management. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 8:4 (2009), 309–315, 10.1016/j.ufug.2009.09.003.
69. Mace, G.M., Whose conservation? Changes in the perception and goals of nature conservation require a solid scientific basis. Science 345:6205 (2014), 1558–1560, 10.1126/science.1254704.
70. Magigi, W., Urbanization and its impacts to food systems and environmental sustainability in urban space: Evidence from urban agriculture livelihoods in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of Environmental Protection 04:10 (2013), 1137–1148, 10.4236/jep.2013.410130.
71. Mashapa, C., Gandiwa, E., Mhuriro-Mashapa, P., Zisadza-Gandiwa, P., Increasing demand on natural forest products in urban and peri-urban areas of Mutare, Eastern Zimbabwe: Implications for sustainable natural resources management. Nature & Faune Journal 28:2 (2014), 42–48.
72. McConnachie, M.M., Shackleton, C.M., Public green space inequality in small towns in South Africa. Habitat International 34:2 (2010), 244–248, 10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.09.009.
73. McConnachie, M.M., Shackleton, C.M., McGregor, G.K., The extent of public green space and alien plant species in 10 small towns of the Sub-Tropical Thicket Biome, South Africa. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 7:1 (2008), 1–13, 10.1016/j.ufug.2007.12.003.
74. McDonnell, M., Hahs, A., Four ways to reduce the loss of native plants and animals from our cities and towns. The Nature of Cities, 2014.
75. Mensah, C.A., Urban green spaces in Africa: Nature and challenges. International Journal of Ecosystem 4:1 (2014), 1–11, 10.5923/j.ije.20140401.01.
76. Mguni, P., Herslund, L., Jensen, M.B., Sustainable urban drainage systems: Examining the potential for green infrastructure-based stormwater management for Sub-Saharan cities. Natural Hazards 82:S2 (2016), 241–257, 10.1007/s11069-016-2309-x.
77. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. 2005, Island Press, Washington, DC.
78. Mpofu, T.P.Z., Environmental challenges of urbanization: A case study for open green space management. Research Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Management 2:4 (2013), 105–110.
79. Muderere, T., Natural co-existence or confinement: Challenges in integrating bird-life concerns into urban planning and design for Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 13:1 (2011), 162–183.
80. Munang, R., Thiaw, I., Alverson, K., Liu, J., Han, Z., The role of ecosystem services in climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 5:1 (2013), 47–52 10.1016/j.cosust.2013.02.002.
81. Munien, S., Nkambule, S.S., Buthelezi, H.Z., Conceptualisation and use of green spaces in peri-urban communities: Experiences from Inanda, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, Supplement 1:December (2015), 155–167.
82. Mutisya, E., Yarime, M., Understanding the grassroots dynamics of Slums in Nairobi: The Dilemma of Kibera Informal Settlements. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies 2:2 (2011), 197–213.
83. Nortey, D.D.N., Aheto, D.W., Blay, J., Jonah, F.E., Asare, N.K., Comparative assessment of mangrove biomass and fish assemblages in an urban and rural Mangrove Wetlands in Ghana. Wetlands 36:4 (2016), 717–730, 10.1007/s13157-016-0783-2.
84. Nuwagaba, A., Urban poverty and environmental health: The Case of Kampala City, Uganda. Darkoh, M., Rwomire, A., (eds.) Human impact on environment and sustainable development in Africa, 2003, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Aldershot, 403–428.
85. Odindi, J.O., Mhangara, P., Green spaces trends in the city of port elizabeth from 1990 to 2000 using remote sensing. International Journal of Environmental Research 6:3 (2012), 653–662.
86. Ojea, E., Challenges for mainstreaming Ecosystem-based Adaptation into the international climate agenda. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 14 (2015), 41–48, 10.1016/j.cosust.2015.03.006.
87. Okpala, D. (2009). Regional Overview of the Status of Urban Planning and Planning Practice in Anglophone (Sub-Saharan) African Countries, in: Revisiting Urban Planning: Global Report on Human Settlements 2009.
88. Olaleye, D.O., Ayoade, O.J., Omisore, E.O., A multivariate analysis of factors influencing green space provision in residential neighbourhood of Sub-Saharan African Cities. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3:5 (2013), 138–146.
89. Padgham, J., Jabbour, J., Dietrich, K., Managing change and building resilience: A multi-stressor analysis of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Africa and Asia. Urban Climate 12 (2015), 183–204, 10.1016/j.uclim.2015.04.003.
90. Pearson, R.G., Reasons to conserve nature. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 31:5 (2016), 366–371, 10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.005.
91. Poleto, C., & Tassi, R. (2012). Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems, in: Drainage Systems (M. S. Javaid, ed.), IntechOpen, pp. 55–72. DOI: 10.5772/34491.
92. Pugh, T.A., Mackenzie, A.R., Whyatt, J.D., Hewitt, C.N., Effectiveness of green infrastructure for improvement of air quality in urban street canyons. Environmental Science & Technology 46:14 (2012), 7692–7699, 10.1021/es300826w.
93. Rabare, R.S., Okech, R., Onyango, G.M., The role of urban parks and socio-economic development: Case study of Kisumu Kenya. Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban Management 3:12 (2009), 22–36.
94. Ravallion, M., Are there lessons for Africa from China's success against poverty?. World Development 37:2 (2009), 303–313, 10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.06.001.
95. Richardson, E., Shackleton, C.M., The extent and perceptions of vandalism as a cause of street tree damage in small towns in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 13:3 (2014), 425–432, 10.1016/j.ufug.2014.04.003.
96. Roberts, D., Thinking globally, acting locally – institutionalizing climate change at the local government level in Durban, South Africa. Environment and Urbanization 20:2 (2008), 521–537, 10.1177/0956247808096126.
97. Roberts, D., Prioritizing climate change adaptation and local level resilience in Durban, South Africa. Environment and Urbanization 22:2 (2010), 397–413, 10.1177/0956247810379948.
98. Roberts, D., Boon, R., Diederichs, N., Douwes, E., Govender, N., McInnes, A., et al. Exploring ecosystem-based adaptation in Durban, South Africa: “Learning-by-doing” at the local government coal face. Environment and Urbanization 24:1 (2012), 167–195, 10.1177/0956247811431412.
99. Roberts, D., O'Donoghue, S., Urban environmental challenges and climate change action in Durban, South Africa. Environment and Urbanization 25:2 (2013), 299–319, 10.1177/0956247813500904.
100. Schäffler, A., Swilling, M., Valuing green infrastructure in an urban environment under pressure — The Johannesburg case. Ecological Economics 86 (2013), 246–257, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.05.008.
101. Schuyt, K.D., Economic consequences of wetland degradation for local populations in Africa. Ecological Economics 53:2 (2005), 177–190, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.08.003.
102. Seburanga, J.L., Kaplin, B.A., Zhang, Q.X., Gatesire, T., Amenity trees and green space structure in urban settlements of Kigali, Rwanda. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 13:1 (2014), 84–93, 10.1016/j.ufug.2013.08.001.
103. Seto, K.C., Guneralp, B., Hutyra, L.R., Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109:40 (2012), 16083–16088, 10.1073/pnas.1211658109.
104. Shackleton, C.M., Blair, A., Perceptions and use of public green space is influenced by its relative abundance in two small towns in South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 113 (2013), 104–112, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.01.011.
105. Shackleton, C.M., Blair, A., De Lacy, P., Kaoma, H., Mugwagwa, N., Dalu, M.T., et al. How important is green infrastructure in small and medium-sized towns?. 2017, Landscape and Urban Planning, Lessons from South Africa 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.12.007.
106. Shackleton, S., Chinyimba, A., Hebinck, P., Shackleton, C., Kaoma, H., Multiple benefits and values of trees in urban landscapes in two towns in northern South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 136 (2015), 76–86, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.12.004.
107. Shackleton, C.M., Hebinck, P., Kaoma, H., Chishaleshale, M., Chinyimba, A., Shackleton, S.E., et al. Low-cost housing developments in South Africa miss the opportunities for household level urban greening. Land Use Policy 36 (2014), 500–509, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.002.
108. Shanahan, D.F., Fuller, R.A., Bush, R., Lin, B.B., Gaston, K.J., The health benefits of urban nature: How much do we need?. BioScience, 2015, 10.1093/biosci/biv032.
109. Simon, D., McGregor, D., Nsiah-Gyabaah, K., The changing urban–rural interface of African cities: Definitional issues and an application to Kumasi, Ghana. Environment & Urbanization 16:2 (2004), 235–248.
110. Smit, S., Musango, J.K., Kovacic, Z., Brent, A.C., Conceptualising slum in an urban African context. Cities 62 (2017), 107–119.
111. Soga, M., Gaston, K.J., Extinction of experience: The loss of human-nature interactions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14:2 (2016), 94–101, 10.1002/fee.1225.
112. Steiner, F., Frontiers in urban ecological design and planning research. Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014), 304–311, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.023.
113. Stenchly, K., Lippmann, S., Waongo, A., Nyarko, G., Buerkert, A., Weed species structural and functional composition of okra fields and field periphery under different management intensities along the rural-urban gradient of two West African cities. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 237 (2017), 213–223, 10.1016/j.agee.2016.12.028.
114. Sullivan, W.C., Kuo, F.E., De Pooter, S.F., The fruit of urban nature: Vital neighborhood spaces. Environment and Behavior 36:5 (2004), 678–700, 10.1177/0193841x04264945.
115. Suri, J., Anderson, P.M., Charles-Dominique, T., Hellard, E., Cumming, G.S., More than just a corridor: A suburban river catchment enhances bird functional diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning 157 (2017), 331–342, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.07.013.
116. Susca, T., Gaffin, S.R., Dell'osso, G.R., Positive effects of vegetation: Urban heat island and green roofs. Environmental Pollution 159:8–9 (2011), 2119–2126, 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.03.007.
117. Sutherland, C., Sim, V., Buthelezi, S., Khumalo, D., Social constructions of environmental services in a rapidly densifying peri-urban area under dual governance in Durban, South Africa. Bothalia, 46(2), 2016, 10.4102/abc.v46i2.2128.
118. Swanwick, C., Dunnett, N., Woolley, H., Nature, role and value of green space in towns and cities: An overview. Built Environment 29:2 (2003), 94–106, 10.2148/benv.29.2.94.54467.
119. TEEB, The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: TEEB manual for cities. Ecosystem Services in Urban Management, 2011.
120. Turok, I., McGranahan, G., Urbanization and economic growth: The arguments and evidence for Africa and Asia. Environment and Urbanization 25:2 (2013), 465–482, 10.1177/0956247813490908.
121. Tzoulas, K., Korpela, K., Venn, S., Yli-Pelkonen, V., Kaźmierczak, A., Niemela, J., et al. Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning 81:3 (2007), 167–178, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.02.001.
122. Udoh, J.P., Sustainable nondestructive mangrove-friendly aquaculture in Nigeria I: Ecological and environmental perspectives. AACL Bioflux 9:1 (2016), 50–70.
123. UNEP, Kenya: Atlas of our changing environment. 2009, ProgressPress Co., Ltd., Malta.
124. UN-Habitat, The state of African cities 2010: Governance, inequality and urban land markets. 2010, UN Habitat, Nairobi.
125. UN-Habitat (2014). THE STATE OF AFRICAN CITIES 2014: Re-imagining sustainable urban transitions.
126. United Nations (2015a). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015. 70/1. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
127. United Nations, World urbanization prospects: The 2014 revision. 2015, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.
128. van der Walt, L., Cilliers, S.S., Du Toit, M.J., Kellner, K., Conservation of fragmented grasslands as part of the urban green infrastructure: How important are species diversity, functional diversity and landscape functionality?. Urban Ecosystems 18:1 (2015), 87–113, 10.1007/s11252-014-0393-9.
129. von Döhren, P., Haase, D., Ecosystem disservices research: A review of the state of the art with a focus on cities. Ecological Indicators 52 (2015), 490–497.
130. Wangai, P.W., Burkhard, B., Müller, F., A review of studies on ecosystem services in Africa. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 5:2 (2016), 225–245, 10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.08.005.
131. Ward, E.W., Winter, K., Missing the link: Urban stormwater quality and resident behaviour. Water SA, 42(4), 2016, 10.4314/wsa.v42i4.07.
132. Wilkinson, C., Saarne, T., Peterson, G.D., Colding, J., Strategic spatial planning and the ecosystem services concept–An historical exploration. Ecology and Society, 18(1), 2013, 37.
133. World Bank, World development report 2009: Reshaping economic geography. 2009, World Bank, Washington DC.
134. Zölch, T., Maderspacher, J., Wamsler, C., Pauleit, S., Using green infrastructure for urban climate-proofing: An evaluation of heat mitigation measures at the micro-scale. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 20 (2016), 305–316 10.1016/j.ufug.2016.09.011.