Environmental inequality: The social causes and consequences of lead exposure

Annual Review of Sociology

Volumn 44, Issue , 2018, Pages 263-282

  Muller, Christopher ^a   Sampson, Robert J ^b   Winter, Alix S ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

community; environment; inequality; lead exposure; life course; well being

Indexed keywords

EID: 85048123652     PISSN: 03600572     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041222     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Aizer A. 2017. The role of children's health in the intergenerational transmission of economic status. Child Dev. Perspect. 11:167-72
2. Aizer A, Currie J. 2017. Lead and juvenile delinquency: new evidence from linked birth, school, and crime records. NBER Work. Pap. 23392
3. Aizer A, Currie J, Simon P, Vivier P. 2017. Do low levels of blood lead reduce children's future test scores? Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. 10:307-41
4. Albalak R, McElroy RH, Noonan G, Buchanan S, Jones RL, et al. 2003. Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning among children in a Mexican smelting community. Arch. Environ. Health 58:172-83
5. Alshire J, Karraker A, Clarke P. 2017. Neighborhood social stressors, fine particulate matter air pollution, and cognitive function among older U.S. adults. Soc. Sci. Med. 172:56-63
6. Amato MS, Magzamen S, Imm P, Havlena JA, Anderson HA, et al. 2013. Early lead exposure (3 years old) prospectively predicts fourth grade school suspension in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (USA). Environ. Res. 126:60-65
7. Amato MS, Moore CF, Magzamen S, Imm P, Havlena JA, et al. 2012. Lead exposure and educational proficiency: moderate lead exposure and educational proficiency on end-of-grade examinations. Ann. Epidemiol. 22:738-43
8. Auyero J, Swistun D. 2008. The social production of toxic uncertainty. Am. Sociol. Rev. 73:357-59
9. Ballew C, Khan LK, Kaufmann R, Mokdad A, Miller DT, Gunter EW. 1999. Blood lead concentration and children's anthropometric dimensions in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988-1994. J. Pediatr. 134:623-30
10. Barrett KL. 2017. Exploring community levels of lead (Pb) and youth violence. Sociol. Spectr. 37:205-22
11. Beckley AL, Caspi A, Broadbent J, Harrington H, Houts RM, et al. 2018. Association of childhood blood lead levels with criminal offending. JAMA Pediatr. 172:166-73
12. BellingerD, Leviton A, Allred E, Rabinowitz M. 1994. Pre-and postnatal lead exposure and behavior problems in school-aged children. Environ. Res. 66:12-30
13. Bellinger DC. 2008. Lead neurotoxicity and socioeconomic status: conceptual and analytical issues. Neurotoxicology 29:828-32
14. Bellinger DC, Stiles KM, Needleman HL. 1992. Low-level lead exposure, intelligence and academic achievement: a long-term follow-up study. Pediatrics 90:855-61
15. Billings SB, Schnepel KT. 2018. Life after lead: effects of early interventions for children exposed to lead. Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. In press. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20160056
16. Bodin Ö. 2017. Collaborative environmental governance: achieving collective action in social-ecological systems. Science 357:eaan1114
17. Boutwell BB, Nelson EJ, Emo B, VaughnMG, SchootmanM, et al. 2016. The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime. Environ. Res. 148:79-85
18. Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, Lanphear BP. 2006. Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children. Environ. Health Perspect. 114:1904-09
19. Brown P. 2013. Integrating medical and environmental sociology with environmental health: crossing boundaries and building connections through advocacy. J. Health Soc. Behav. 54:145-64
20. Brulle RJ, Pellow DN. 2006. Environmental justice: human health and environmental inequalities. Annu. Rev. Public Health 27:103-24
21. Bullard RD. 1994. Urban infrastructure: social, environmental, and health risks to African Americans. In Handbook of Black American Health, ed. IL Livingston, pp. 315-30. Westport, CT: Greenwood
22. Burns JM, Baghurst PA, Sawyer MG, McMichael AJ, Tong S. 1999. Lifetime low-level exposure to environmental lead and children's emotional and behavioral development at ages 11-13 years: the Port Pirie Cohort Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 149:740-49
23. Byers RK, Lord EE. 1943. Late effects of lead poisoning on mental development.Am. J. Dis. Child. 66:471-94
24. Cabrera Y. 2017. The lead crisis: tackling an invisible, dangerous neurotoxin. Community awareness and action are key to enacting solutions. ThinkProgress, July 15. https://thinkprogress.org/the-lead-crisistackling-an-invisible-dangerous-neurotoxin-d0aebb04c0da/
25. Canfield RL,Henderson CR,Cory-Slechta DA, CoxC, Jusko TA,LanphearBP. 2003. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 μg per deciliter. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1517-26
26. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.). 2012. Low Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call for Primary Prevention. Atlanta, GA: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv.
27. Cecil KM, Brubaker CJ, Adler CM, Dietrich KN, Altaye M, et al. 2008. Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure. PLOS Med. 5:741-50
28. Chen A, Cai B, Dietrich KN, Radcliffe J, Rogan WJ. 2007. Lead exposure, IQ, and behavior in urban 5-to 7-year-olds: Does lead affect behavior only by lowering IQ? Pediatrics 119:e650-58
29. Cho S-C, Kim B-N, Hong Y-C, ShinM-S, Yoo HJ, et al. 2010. Effect of environmental exposure to lead and tobacco smoke on inattentive and hyperactive symptoms and neurocognitive performance in children. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51:1050-57
30. Clay K, Troesken W, Haines M. 2014. Lead and mortality. Rev. Econ. Stat. 96:458-70
31. Collins R. 2008. Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
32. Cook PJ, Laub JH. 2002. After the epidemic: recent trends in youth violence in the United States. Crime Justice 29:1-37
33. Corburn J. 2005. Street Science: Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice. Cambridge,MA: MIT Press
34. Cornwell DA, Brown RA, Via SH. 2016. National survey of lead service line occurrence. J. Am.Water Works Assoc. 108:E182-91 www.annualreviews.org • Environmental Inequality 277
35. Cox DC, Dewalt G, O'Haver R, Salatino B. 2011. American Healthy Homes Survey Lead and Arsenic Findings. Washington, DC: US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev.
36. Crowder K, Downey L. 2010. Interneighborhood migration, race, and environmental hazards: modeling microlevel processes of environmental inequality. Am. J. Sociol. 115:1110-49
37. Currie J. 2011. Inequality at birth: some causes and consequences. Am. Econ. Rev. 101:1-22
38. Denno DW. 1990. Biology and Violence: From Birth to Adulthood. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
39. Denno DW. 1992. Considering lead poisoning as a criminal defense. Fordham Urban Law J. 20:377-400
40. Denworth L. 2008. Toxic Truth: A Scientist, a Doctor, and the Battle over Lead. Boston: Beacon
41. Desmond M, Bell M. 2015. Housing, poverty, and the law. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci. 11:15-35
42. Dietert RR. 2014. Developmental immunotoxicity, perinatal programming, and noncommunicable diseases: focus on human studies. Adv. Med. 2014:867805
43. Dietrich K, Douglas R, Succop P, Berger O, Bornschein R. 2001. Early exposure to lead and juvenile delinquency. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 23:511-18
44. EckelW, RabinowitzM, Foster G. 2001. Discovering unrecognized lead smelting sites by historical methods. Am. J. Public Health 91:625-27
45. EdwardsMA, Roy S. 2016. Academic research in the 21st century: maintaining scientific integrity in a climate of perverse incentives and hypercompetition. Environ. Eng. Sci. 34:51-61
46. Elliott JR, Frickel S. 2013. The historical nature of cities: a study of urbanization and hazardous waste site accumulation. Am. Sociol. Rev. 78:521-43
47. Elliott MR, Zhang N, Small DS. 2015. Application of propensity scores to a continuous exposure: effect of lead exposure in early childhood on reading and mathematics scores. Obs. Stud. 1:30-55
48. EPA (US Environ. Prot. Agency). 1991. Drinking water; maximum contaminant level goals and national primary drinking water regulations for lead and copper; final rule. 40 C.F.R. parts 141 and 142, pp. 26459-564. Fed. Reg., June 30, Part 5
49. EvensA, HryhorczukD,LanphearBP, RankinKM,Lewis DA, et al. 2015. The impact of low-level lead toxicity on school performance among children in the Chicago public schools: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Environ. Health 14:21
50. Farrington DP. 2018. The need to include biological variables in prospective longitudinal studies of the development of criminal behavior. JAMA Pediatr. 172:118-20
51. Feigenbaum JJ, Muller C. 2016. Lead exposure and violent crime in the early twentieth century. Explorations Econ. Hist. 62:51-86
52. Ferrie JP, Rolf K, Troesken W. 2012. Cognitive disparities, lead plumbing, andwater chemistry: prior exposure to water-borne lead and intelligence test scores amongWorld War Two U.S. Army enlistees. Econ. Hum. Biol. 10:98-111
53. Finkelstein Y, Markowitz ME, Rosen JF. 1998. Low-level lead-induced neurotoxicity in children: an update on central nervous system effects. Brain Res. Rev. 27:168-76
54. Friedmandec L. 2017. E.P.A. wanted years to study lead paint rule. It got 90 days. New York Times, Dec. 27, p. A10
55. Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Auinger P, Hornung R, Epstein JN, et al. 2009. Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 124:e1054-63
56. Gawande A. 2009. Hellhole: the United States holds tens of thousands of inmates in long-term solitary confinement. Is it torture? New Yorker, March 30, pp. 36-45
57. Goodlad JK, Marcus DK, Fulton JJ. 2013. Lead and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33:417-25
58. Goodnough A. 2016. Their soil toxic, 1,100 Indiana residents scramble to find new homes. New York Times Aug. 30, p. A1
59. Grönqvist H, Nilsson JP, Robling P-O. 2017. Early lead exposure and outcomes in adulthood.Work. Pap. 2017:4, Inst. Eval. Lab. Mark. Educ. Policy, Uppsala, Sweden
60. Gump BB, Stewart P, Reihman J, Lonky E, Darvill T, et al. 2008. Low-level prenatal and postnatal blood lead exposure and adrenocortical responses to acute stress in children. Environ. Health Perspect. 116:249-55
61. Haley VB, Talbot TO. 2004. Geographic analysis of blood lead levels in New York State children born 1994-1997. Environ. Health Perspect. 112:1577-82
62. Hamilton A. 1929. Industrial Poisons in the United States. New York: Macmillan
63. Hanna-AttishaM,LaChance J, Sadler RC, Schnepp AC. 2016. Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: a spatial analysis of risk and public health response. Am. J. Public Health 106:283-90
64. Health Impact Proj. 2017. 10 policies to prevent and respond to childhood lead exposure: an assessment of the risks communities face and key federal, state, and local solutions. Rep., Pew Charit. Trusts, Philadelphia, PA
65. Hu H, Shih R, Rothenberg S, Schwartz BS. 2007. The epidemiology of lead toxicity in adults: measuring dose and consideration of other methodologic issues. Environ. Health Perspect. 115:455-62
66. Ivory D, Faturechi R. 2017. The deep industry ties of Trump's deregulation teams. New York Times, July 12, p. A1
67. Jacobs DE, Clickner RP, Zhou JY, Viet SM, Marker DA, et al. 2002. The prevalence of lead-based paint hazards in U.S. housing. Environ. Health Perspect. 110:A599-606
68. Jusko TA, Henderson CR, Lanphear BP, Cory-Slechta DA, Parsons PJ, Canfield RL. 2008. Blood lead concentrations 10 μg/dl and child intelligence at 6 years of age. Environ. Health Perspect. 116:243-48
69. Kaplowitz SA, Perlstadt H, Post LA. 2010. Comparing lead poisoning risk assessment methods: census block group characteristics versus zip codes as predictors. Public Health Rep. 125:234-45
70. Kennedy C, Yard E, Dignam T, Buchanan S, Condon S, et al. 2016. Blood lead levels among children aged 6 years-Flint, Michigan, 2013-2016. MMWR 65:650-54
71. Kim J, Bushway S, Tsao H-S. 2016. Identifying classes of explanations for crime drop: period and cohort effects for New York State. J. Quant. Criminol. 32:357-75
72. Kim JH, Park Y, Kim SK, Moon H-B, Park J, et al. 2017. Timing of an accelerated body mass increase in children exposed to lead in early life: a longitudinal study. Sci. Total Environ. 584-85:72-77
73. Kravitz-Wirtz N, Crowder K, Hajat A, Sass V. 2016. The long-term dynamics of racial/ethnic inequality in neighborhood air pollution exposure, 1990-2009. Du Bois Rev. Soc. Sci. Res. Race 13:237-59
74. Krieger N. 2005. Embodiment: a conceptual glossary for epidemiology. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 59:350-55
75. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, Soobader M-J, Subramanian SV, Carson R. 2003. Choosing area based socioeconomic measures to monitor social inequalities in low birth weight and childhood lead poisoning: the Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project (U.S.). J. Epidemiol. Community Health 57:186-99
76. Lanphear BP,Dietrich K, Auinger P,Cox C. 2000. Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations 10 microg/dl in U.S. children and adolescents. Public Health Rep. 115:521-29
77. Lanphear BP,Hornung R, Khoury J, YoltonK, Baghurst P, et al. 2005. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:894-99
78. Lanphear BP, Weitznan M, Eberly S. 1996. Racial differences in urban children's environmental exposures to lead. Am. J. Public Health 86:1460-63
79. Lauritsen JL, Rezey ML, Heimer K. 2016. When choice of data matters: analyses of U.S. crime trends, 1973-2012. J. Quant. Criminol. 32:335-55
80. Lidsky TI, Schneider JS. 2003. Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Brain 126:5-19
81. Lindgren KN, Masten VL, Tiburzi MJ, Ford DP, Bleecker ML. 1999. The factor structure of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and its relationship to occupational lead exposure. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 41:3-10
82. Mahaffey KR, Annest JL, Roberts J,Murphy RS. 1982. National estimates of blood lead levels: United States, 1976-1980. N. Engl. J. Med. 307:573-79
83. Marcus DK, Fulton JJ, Clarke EJ. 2010. Lead and conduct problems: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 39:234-41
84. Markowitz G, Rosner D. 2013. Lead Wars: The Politics of Science and the Fate of America's Children. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
85. Massey DS. 2004. Segregation and stratification: a biosocial perspective. Du Bois Rev. Soc. Sci. Res. Race 1:7-25
86. Massey DS, Denton N. 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
87. McCall PL, Land KC. 2004. Trends in environmental lead exposure and troubled youth, 1960-1995: an age-period-cohort characteristic analysis. Soc. Sci. Res. 33:339-59 www.annualreviews.org • Environmental Inequality 279
88. McEwen CA, McEwen BS. 2017. Social structure, adversity, toxic stress, and intergenerational poverty: an early childhood model. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 43:445-72
89. Mendelsohn AL, Dreyer BP, Fierman AH, Rosen CM, Legano LA, et al. 1998. Low-level lead exposure and behavior in early childhood. Pediatrics 101:e10
90. MielkeHW,GonzalesCR, Powell E, Jartun M, Mielke PW. 2007. Nonlinear association between soil lead and blood lead of children inmetropolitan NewOrleans, Louisiana: 2000-2005. Sci. Total Environ. 388:43-53
91. Mielke HW, Laidlaw MAS, Gonzales CR. 2011. Estimation of leaded (Pb) gasoline's continuing material and health impacts on 90 US urbanized areas. Environ. Int. 37:248-57
92. Mielke HW, Zahran S. 2012. The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence. Environ. Int. 43:48-55
93. Miranda ML, Kim D, Galeano MAO, Paul CJ, Hull AP, Morgan SP. 2007. The relationship between early childhood blood lead levels and performance on end-of-grade tests. Environ. Health Perspect. 115:1242-47
94. Moody H, Darden JT, Pigozzi BW. 2016. The racial gap in childhood blood lead levels related to socioeconomic position of residence in metropolitan Detroit. Sociol. Race Ethn. 2:200-18
95. Mooney C, Eilperin J. 2017. Trump's EPA moves to dismantle programs that protect kids from lead paint. Washington Post, Apr. 5
96. Morello-Frosch, Rachel MZ, JerretM, Shamasunder B, Kyle AD. 2011. Understanding the cumulative impacts of inequalities in environmental health: implications for policy. Health Aff. 30:879-87
97. Navas-Acien A, Guallar E, Silbergeld EK, Rothenberg SJ. 2007. Lead exposure and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Environ. Health Perspect. 115:472-82
98. Needleman H. 2004. Lead poisoning. Annu. Rev. Med. 55:209-22
99. Needleman HL, Gatsonis CA. 1990. Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children: a meta-analysis of modern studies. JAMA 263:673-78
100. Needleman HL, McFarland C, Ness RB, Fienberg SE, Tobin MJ. 2002. Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents: a case control study. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 24:711-17
101. Needleman HL, Riess JA, Tobin MJ, Biesecker GE, Greenhouse JB. 1996. Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 275:363-69
102. Nelson A. 2016. Genuine struggle and care: an interview with Cleo Silvers. Am. J. Public Health 106:1744-48
103. Nevin R. 2007. Understanding international crime trends: the legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environ. Res. 104:315-36
104. Newkirk VR. 2017. The poisoned generation. The Atlantic, May 21
105. Nigg JT, Alexis L, Elmore NN, Friderici KH,Nikolas MA. 2016. Variation in an iron metabolism gene moderates the association between blood lead levels and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Psychol. Sci. 27:257-69
106. Nigg JT, Nikolas M, Knottnerus GM, Cavanagh K, Friderici K. 2010. Confirmation and extension of association of blood lead with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD symptom domains at population-typical exposure levels. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51:58-65
107. Olson E, Fedinick KP. 2016. What's in your water? Flint and beyond. Rep., NRD Counc.,Washington, DC
108. Oyana TJ, Margai FM. 2010. Spatial patterns and health disparities in pediatric lead exposure in Chicago: characteristics and profiles of high-risk neighborhoods. Prof. Geogr. 62:46-65
109. Pattillo M. 2013. Housing: commodity versus right. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 39:509-31
110. Pell MB, Schneyer J. 2016. Off the charts: the thousands of U.S. locales where lead poisoning is worse than in Flint. Reuters, Dec. 19. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-lead-testing/
111. Pieper KJ,TangM,EdwardsMA.2017. Flintwater crisis caused by interrupted corrosion control: investigating "ground zero" home. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51:2007-14
112. Pocock SJ, Smith M, Baghurst P. 1994. Environmental lead and children's intelligence: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. BMJ 309:1189-97
113. Popovich N, Albeck-Ripka L, Pierre-Louis K. 2018. 67 environmental rules on the way out under Trump. New York Times, Jan. 31
114. Rawls J. 1999. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Revis. ed.
115. Raymond J, Wheeler W, Brown MJ. 2014. Lead screening and prevalence of blood lead levels in children aged 1-2 years-child blood lead surveillance system,United States, 2002-2010 andNationalHealth and Nutrition Examination Survey, United States, 1999-2010. MMWR 63:36-42
116. Reed W. 2011. Preventing childhood lead poisoning. In Handbook of African American Health: Social and Behavioral Interventions, ed. AJ Lemelle,WReed, S Taylor, pp. 103-11. New York: Springer
117. Reuben A, Caspi A, Belsky DW, Broadbent J, Harrington H, et al. 2017. Association of childhood blood lead levels with cognitive function and socioeconomic status at age 38 years and with IQ change and socioeconomic mobility between childhood and adulthood. JAMA 317:1244-51
118. Reyes JW. 2007. Environmental policy as social policy? The impact of childhood lead exposure on crime. B.E. J. Econ. Anal. Policy 7:1-41
119. Reyes JW. 2015a. Lead exposure and behavior: effects on antisocial and risky behavior among children and adolescents. Econ. Inq. 53:1580-605
120. Reyes JW. 2015b. Lead policy and academic performance: insights from Massachusetts. Harvard Educ. Rev. 85:75-107
121. Rhodes D, Spiro A, Aro A, Hu H. 2003. Relationship of bone and blood lead levels to psychiatric symptoms: the Normative Aging Study. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 45:1144-51
122. Rosen E. 2014. Rigging the rules of the game: how landlords geographically sort low-income renters. City Community 13:310-40
123. Rosner D. 2014. Imagination and public health: the end of lead poisoning in California? Milbank Q. 92:430-33
124. Rosner D, Markowitz G. 2016. Building the world that kills us: the politics of lead, science, and polluted homes, 1970 to 2000. J. Urban Hist. 42:323-45
125. Rothenberg SJ, Rothenberg JC. 2005. Testing the dose-response specification in epidemiology: public health and policy consequences for lead. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:1190-95
126. Sampson RJ. 2012. Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
127. Sampson RJ. 2016. The characterological imperative: on Heckman, Humphries, and Kautz's The Myth of Achievement Tests: The GED and the Role of Character in American Life. J. Econ. Lit. 54:493-513
128. SampsonRJ, Raudenbush SW,Earls F. 1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: amultilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277:918-24
129. SampsonRJ, Winter A. 2016. The racial ecology of lead poisoning: toxic inequality inChicago neighborhoods, 1995-2013. Du Bois Rev. Soc. Sci. Res. Race 13:261-83
130. Sampson RJ, Winter A. 2018. Poisoned development: assessing childhood lead exposure as a cause of crime in a birth cohort followed through adolescence. Criminology 56:269-301
131. Schein A. 2017. Omnia podcast: reducing lead exposure. Omnia: All Things Penn Arts &Sciences, Aug. 21. https://omnia.sas.upenn.edu/story/omnia-podcast-reducing-lead-exposure-audio
132. Schulz AJS, Mentz GB, Sampson N, Ward M, Anderson R, et al. 2016. Race and the distribution of social and physical environmental risk: a case example from the Detroit metropolitan area. Du Bois Rev. Soc. Sci. Res. Race 13:285-304
133. Schwartz J. 1994. Low-level lead exposure and children-s IQ: a meta-analysis and search for a threshold. Environ. Res. 65:42-55
134. Sciarillo WG, AlexanderG, Farrell KP. 1992. Lead exposure and child behavior. Am. J. PublicHealth 82:1356-60
135. Scinicariello F, BuserMC, MevissenM, Portier CJ. 2013. Blood lead level association with lower body weight in NHANES 1999-2006. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 273:516-23
136. Sharkey PT. 2010. The acute effect of local homicides on children's cognitive performance. PNAS 107:11733-38
137. Sharkey PT. 2013. Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress Toward Racial Equality. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
138. Sharkey PT. 2018. Uneasy Peace: The Great Crime Decline, the Revival of City Life, and the NextWar on Violence. New York: W.W. Norton &Company
139. Sharkey PT, Sampson RJ. 2015. Violence, cognition, and neighborhood inequality in America. In Social Neuroscience: Brain, Mind, and Society, ed. RK Schutt, LJ Seidman, MS Keshavan, pp. 320-39. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
140. Shostak S. 2013. Exposed Science: Genes, the Environment, and the Politics of Population Health. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press www.annualreviews.org • Environmental Inequality 281
141. Silbergeld EK. 1997. Preventing lead poisoning in children. Annu. Rev. Public Health 18:187-210
142. Skocpol T. 1995. Protecting Soldiers and Mothers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
143. Stretesky PB. 2003. The distribution of air lead levels across U.S. counties: implications for the production of racial inequality. Sociol. Spectr. 23:91-118
144. Stretesky PB, Lynch MJ. 2001. The relationship between lead exposure and homicide. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 155:579-82
145. Stretesky PB, Lynch MJ. 2004. The relationship between lead and crime. J. Health Soc. Behav. 45:214-29
146. Taylor MP, Forbes M, Opeskin B, Parr N, Lanphear BP. 2016. The relationship between atmospheric lead emissions and aggressive crime: an ecological study. Environ. Health 15:1-10
147. Troesken W. 2006. The Great Lead Water Pipe Disaster. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
148. Troesken W. 2008. Lead water pipes and infant mortality and the turn of the twentieth century. J. Hum. Resourc. 43:553-75
149. Troesken W, Beeson PE. 2003. The significance of lead water mains in American cities. Some historical evidence. In Health and Labor Force Participation over the Life Cycle: Evidence from the Past, ed. DL Costa, pp. 181-202. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
150. Underwood E. 2017. The polluted brain: evidence builds that dirty air causes Alzheimer's, dementia. Science. https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aal0656
151. Vargas G, García G, Andrade MR, Del Razo LM, Aburto B, et al. 2001. Lead exposure in children living in a smelter community in region Lagunera, Mexico. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 62:417-29
152. Vivier PM, HauptmanM,Weitzen SH, Bell S,Quilliam DN, Logan JR. 2011. The important health impact of where a child lives: neighborhood characteristics and the burden of lead poisoning. Matern. Child Health J. 15:1195-202
153. Wacquant L. 2008. Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality. Cambridge, UK: Polity
154. Wallace G, Marsh R, LaMotte S. 2017. Interior Dept. halts study into Appalachian mining technique's likely health hazards. CNN, Aug. 23
155. Warren C. 2001. Brush with Death: A Social History of Lead Poisoning. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
156. Wasserman GA, Staghezza-Jaramillo B, Shrout P, Popovac D, Graziano J. 1998. The effect of lead exposure on behavior problems in preschool children. Am. J. Public Health 88:481-86
157. Weitzman M, Baten A, Rosenthal DG, Hoshino R, Tohn E, Jacobs DE. 2013. Housing and child health. Curr. Probl. Pediatr. Adolesc. Health Care 43:187-224
158. Western B. 2014. Incarceration, inequality, and imagining alternatives. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 651:302-06
159. Western B. 2015. Lifetimes of violence in a sample of released prisoners. RSF Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 1:14-30
160. Wildeman C, Muller C. 2012. Mass imprisonment and inequality in health and family life. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci. 8:11-30
161. Wilson WJ. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
162. Winter AS, Sampson RJ. 2017. From lead exposure in early childhood to adolescent health: a Chicago birth cohort. Am. J. Public Health 107:1496-501
163. Wright JP,Dietrich KN,RisMD,HornungRW,Wessel SD, et al. 2008. Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood. PLOS Med. 5:732-40
164. Zahran S, Laidlaw MAS, McElmurry SP, Filippelli GM, Taylor M. 2013. Linking source and effect: resuspended soil lead, air lead, and children's blood lead levels in Detroit, Michigan. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47:2839-45
165. ZhangN, Baker HW, Tufts M, Raymond RE, SalihuH, Elliott MR. 2013. Early childhood lead exposure and academic achievement: evidence fromDetroit public schools, 2008-2010. Am. J. PublicHealth 103:e72-77
166. Zivin JG, Neidell M. 2018. Air pollution's hidden impacts: exposure can affect labor productivity and human capital. Science 359:39-40