Mental evolution and development: Evidence for secondary representation in children, great apes, and other animals

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 127, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 629-650

  Suddendorf, Thomas ^a   Whiten, Andrew ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; COMPARATIVE STUDY; EMOTION; EVOLUTION; HOMINID; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; PERCEPTION; PROBLEM SOLVING; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT; SPECIES DIFFERENCE;

ANIMALS; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; EMOTIONS; EVOLUTION; HOMINIDAE; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; PROBLEM SOLVING; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SPECIES SPECIFICITY;

EID: 85047681940     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.5.629     Document Type: Article

References (245)

1. Amsterdam, B. K. (1972). Mirror self-image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology, 5, 297-305.
2. Anderson, J. R. (1984). The development of self-recognition: A review. Developmental Psychobiology, 17, 35-49.
3. Anderson, J. R. (1986). Mirror-mediated finding in hidden food by monkeys (Macaca tonkeana and M. fascicularis). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100, 237-242.
4. Anderson, J. R., & Gallup, G. G. (1997). Self-recognition in Saguinus? A critical essay. Animal Behavior, 54, 1563-1567.
5. Asendorpf, J. B., & Baudonniere, P. M. (1993). Self-awareness and other-awareness: Mirror self-recognition and synchronic imitation among unfamiliar peers. Developmental Psychology, 29, 88-95.
6. Asendorpf, J. B., Warkentin, V., & Baudonniere, P. M. (1996). Self-awareness and other-awareness: II. Mirror self-recognition, social contingency awareness, and synchronic imitation. Developmental Psychology, 32, 313-321.
7. Baldwin, D. A. (1993). Infants' ability to consult the speaker for clues to word reference. Journal of Child Language, 20, 395-418.
8. Baldwin, D. A., & Moses, L. J. (1994). Early understanding of referential intent and attentional focus: Evidence from language and emotion. In C. Lewis & P. Mitchell (Eds.), Children's early understanding of mind (pp. 133-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
9. Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). Perceptual role taking and proto-declarative pointing in autism. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 113-127.
10. Barr, R., & Hayne, H. (1999). Developmental changes in imitation from television during infancy. Child Development, 70, 1067-1081.
11. Bartsch, K., & Wellman, H. M. (1995). Children's talk about the mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
12. Baudonniere, P. M., Margules, S., Belkhenchir, G., Pepe, F., & Warkentin, V. (in press). A longitudinal and transverse study of the emergence of the symbolic function in children between 15 and 19 months of age. In R. W. Mitchell (Ed.), Pretense in animals, children, and adult humans. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
13. Bauer, P. J. (1996). What do infants recall of their lives? Memory for specific events by one-to-two year-olds. American Psychologist, 51, 29-41.
14. Bauer, P. J., Schwade, J. A., Wewerka, S. S., & Delaney, K. (1999). Planning ahead: Goal-directed problem solving by 2-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1321-1337.
15. Bennett, J. (1978). Some remarks about concepts. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 557-560.
16. Bischof-Köhler, D. (1989). Spiegelbild und Empatie [Mirror image and empathy]. Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber.
17. Bladwin, D. A. (1991). Infants' contribution to achievement of joint reference. Child Development, 62, 875-890.
18. Boesch, C. (1992). New elements of a theory of mind in wild chimpanzees. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 15, 149-150.
19. Boesch, C., & Boesch, H. (1984). Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking. Primates, 25, 160-170.
20. Boinski, S., Quatrone, R. P., & Swarts, H. (in press). Substrate and tool use by brown capuchins in Suriname: Ecological contexts and cognitive bases. American Anthropologist.
21. Boysen, S. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1995). Responses to quantity: Perceptual versus cognitive mechanisms in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 21, 82-86.
22. Boysen, S. T., Bryan, K. M., & Shreyer, T. A. (1994). Shadows and mirrors: Alternative avenues to the development of self-recognition in chimpanzees. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 215-239). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
23. Boysen, S. T., Kuhlmeier, V. A., Halliday, P., & Halliday, Y. M. (1999). Tool use in captive gorillas. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & H. L. Miles (Eds.), The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans (pp. 179-187). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
24. Brooks, D., & McLennan, D. (1991). Phylogeny, ecology, and behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
25. Bugnyar, T., & Kotrschal, K. (1999, December). The raiding of conspecific food caches in common ravens: Is it a clue for deceptive abilities and intentionality? Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, London, England.
26. Bullock, M., & Luetkenhaus, P. (1988). The development of volitional behavior in the toddler years. Child Development, 59, 664-674.
27. Butterworth, G., & Jarrett, N. (1991). What minds have in common is space: Spatial mechanisms serving joint visual attention in infancy. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 91, 55-72.
28. Byrne, R. W. (1995). The thinking ape. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
29. Byrne, R. W. (1996). The misunderstood ape: Cognitive skills of the gorilla. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 111-130). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
30. Byrne, R. W., Held, S., Devereux, C., & Mendl, M. (1999, December). Do pigs have a theory of mind? Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, London, England.
31. Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (1990). Tactical deception in primates: The 1990 database. Primate Reports, 27, 1-101.
32. Call, J. (2001). Body imitation in an encultured orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). Cybernetics and Systems, 32, 97-119.
33. Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1994). Production and comprehension of referential pointing by orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 307-317.
34. Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1996). The effect of humans on the cognitive development of apes. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 371-403). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
35. Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Distinguishing intentional from accidental actions in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112, 192-206.
36. Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1999). A nonverbal false belief task: The performance of children and great apes. Child Development, 70, 381-395.
37. Callhoun, S., & Thompson, R. L. (1988). Long-term retention of self-recognition by chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 15, 361-365.
38. Chapman, M. (1987). A longitudinal study of cognitive representation in symbolic play, self-recognition, and object-permanence during the second year. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 10, 151-170.
39. Custance, D. M., Whiten, A., & Bard, K. A. (1994). The development of gestural imitation and self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children. In J. J. Roeder, B. Thierry, J. R. Anderson, & N. Herrenschmidt (Eds.), Current primatology: Selected proceedings of the XIVth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Strasbourg: Vol. 2. Social development, learning and behaviour (pp. 381-387). Strasbourg, France: Universite Louis Pasteur.
40. Custance, D. M., Whiten, A., & Bard, K. A. (1995). Can young chimpanzees imitate arbitrary actions? Hayes and Hayes (1952) revisited. Behaviour, 132, 839-858.
41. de Blois, S. T., & Novak, M. A. (1994). Object permanence in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 318-327.
42. de Blois, S. T., Novak, M. A., & Bond, M. (1998). Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112, 137-152.
43. D'Eath, R. B. (1998). Can video images imitate real stimuli in animal behaviour experiments? Biological Review, 73, 267-292.
44. DeLoache, J. S. (1987, December 11). Rapid change in the symbolic functioning of very young children. Science, 238, 1556-1557.
45. DeLoache, J. S. (1991). Symbolic functioning in very young children: Understanding of pictures and models. Child Development, 62, 736-752.
46. DeLoache, J. S., Pierroutsakos, S. L., Uttal, D. H., Rosengren, K. S., & Gottlieb, A. (1998). Grasping the nature of pictures. Psychological Science, 9, 205-210.
47. DeLoache, J. S., Sugarman, S., & Brown, A. L. (1985). The development of error correction strategies in young children's manipulative play. Child Development, 56, 928-939.
48. Dennett, D. (1978). Beliefs about beliefs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 568-570.
49. Dennett, D. C. (1983). Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: The "Panglossian paradigm" defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6, 343-390.
50. Dennett, D. C. (1995). Darwin's dangerous idea. New York: Simon & Schuster.
51. de Waal, F. B. M. (1986). Deception in the natural communication of chimpanzees. In R. W. Mitchell & N. S. Thompson (Eds.), Deception: Perspectives on human and non-human deceit (pp, 221-244). Albany: State University of New York Press.
52. de Waal, F. B. M. (1996). Good natured. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
53. de Waal, F. B. M., & Aureli, F. (1996). Consolation, reconciliation, and a possible cognitive difference between macaque and chimpanzee. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 80-110). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
54. Döhl, J. (1966). Manipulierfahigkeit und "Einsichtiges" Verhalten eines Schimpansen bei komplizierten Handlungsketten [Manipulability and "insightful" behavior of a chimpanzee in complicated behavior chains]. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 23, 77-113.
55. Döhl, J. (1968). Uber die Fahigkeit einer Schimpansin, Umwege mit selbststandigen Zwischenzielen zu uberblicken [The ability of a female chimpanzee to overlook intermediate goals]. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 25, 89-103.
56. Döhl, J. (1969). Versuche mit einer Schimpansin uber Abkurzungen bei Umwegen mit selbststandigen Zwischenzielen [Experiments with a chimpanzee on using shortcuts in detour problems with subgoals]. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 26, 200-207.
57. Doré, F. Y., & Dumas, C. (1987). Psychology of animal cognition: Piagetian studies. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 219-233.
58. Doré, F. Y., Fiset, S., Goulet, S., Dumas, M. C., & Gagnon, S. (1996). Search behavior in cats and dogs: Interspecific differences in working memory and spatial cognition. Animal Learning and Behavior, 24, 142-149.
59. Doré, F. Y., & Goulet, S. (1998). The comparative analysis of object knowledge. In J. Langer & M. Killen (Eds.), Piaget, evolution and development (pp. 55-72). Mahawah, NJ: Erlbaum.
60. Dumas, C., & Brunet, C. (1994). Permanence de l'objet chez le singe capuchin (Cebus apella): Etude des desplacements invisibles [Object permanence in Capuchin monkeys: A study of invisible displacement]. Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Experimentale, 48, 341-357.
61. Dunbar, R. I. M. (2000). Causal reasoning, mental rehearsal and the evolution of primate cognition. In C. M. Heyes & L. Huber (Eds.), The evolution of cognition (pp. 205-219). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
62. Dunn, J. (1988). The beginnings of social understanding. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
63. Dunn, J., Brown, J., Slomowski, C., Telsa, C., & Youngblade, L. (1991). Young children's understanding of other people's feelings and beliefs. Child Development, 91, 1352-1366.
64. Epstein, R., Lanza, R. P., & Skinner, B. F. (1981, May 8). "Self-awareness" in the pigeon. Science, 212, 695-696.
65. Farah, M. J. (2000). The neural bases of mental imagery. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences (2nd ed., pp. 965-974). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
66. Fein, G. G. (1981). Pretend play: an integrative review. Cognitive Development, 52, 1095-1118.
67. Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children's knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45.
68. Flavell, J. H., Flavell, E. R., Green, F. L., & Korfmacher, J. E. (1990). Do young children think of television images as pictures or real objects? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 34, 399-419.
69. Flavell, J. H., & Miller, P. H. (1998). Social cognition. In D. Kuhn & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 2. Cognition, perception, and language (5th ed., pp. 851-898). New York: Wiley.
70. Fleishman, L. J., McClintock, W. J., D'Eath, R. B., Brainard, D. H., & Endler, J. A. (1998). Colour perception and the use of video playback experiments in animal behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 56, 1035-1040.
71. Fox, E. A., Sitompul, A. F., & Van Schaik, C. P. (1999). Intelligent tool use in wild Sumatran orangutans. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & H. L. Miles (Eds.), The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans (pp. 99-116). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
72. Funk, M. S. (1996). Development of object permanence in the New Zealand parakeet (Cynoramphus auriceps). Animal Learning and Behavior, 24, 375-383.
73. Gagnon, S., & Doré, F. Y. (1992). Search behavior in various breeds of adult dogs (Canis familiaris): Object permanence and olfactory cues. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 106, 58-68.
74. Gagnon, S., & Doré. F. Y. (1994). Cross-sectional study of object permanence in domestic puppies (Canis familiaris). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 220-232.
75. Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain, 119, 593-609.
76. Gallup, G. G. (1970. January 2). Chimpanzees: Self recognition. Science, 167, 86-87.
77. Gallup, G. G. (1982). Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 237-248.
78. Gallup, G. G., McClure, M. K., Hill, S. D., & Bundy, R. A. (1971). Capacity for self-recognition in differentially reared chimpanzees. Psychological Record, 21, 69-74.
79. Gomez, J.-C. (1996). Ostensive behaviour in great apes: The role of eye contact. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 131-151). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
80. Goodall, J. (1986). "The Chimpanzees of Combe": Patterns of behaviour. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
81. Haake, R. J., & Somerville, S. C. (1985). Development of logical search skills in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 21, 176-186.
82. Halford, G. S. (1993). Children's understanding: The development of mental models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
83. Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, S. (1998). Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental and cognitive psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 803-864.
84. Hare, B., Call, J., Agnetta, B., & Tomasello, M. (2000). Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see. Animal Behaviour, 59, 771-785.
85. Hare, B., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2001). Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know? Animal Behaviour, 61, 139-151.
86. Harman, G. (1978). Studying the chimpanzee's theory of mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 576-577.
87. Hauser, M. D., Kralik, J., Botto-Mahan, C., Garrett, M., & Oser, J. (1995). Self-recognition in primates: Phylogeny and the salience of species-typical features. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 92, 10811-10814.
88. Hayes, C. (1951). The ape in our house. New York: Harper.
89. Hayes, K. J., & Hayes, C. (1952). Imitation in a home-raised chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45, 450-459.
90. Hayes, K. J., & Hayes, C. (1953). Picture perception in a home-raised chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 46, 470-474.
91. Heinrich, B. (1996). An experimental investigation of insight in common ravens (Corvus corax). The Auk, 112, 994-1003.
92. Henning, W. (1979). Phylogenetic systematics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
93. Herman, L. (in press). Vocal, social and self-imitation by bottlenosed dolphins. In K. Dautenhahn & C. Nehaniv (Eds.), Imitation in animals and artifacts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
94. Herman, L. M., Pack, A. A., & Morel-Samuels, P. (1993). Representational and conceptual skills of dolphins. In H. L. Roitblat, L. M. Herman, & P. E. Nachtigall (Eds.), Language and communication: Comparative perspectives (pp. 403-442). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
95. Heyes, C. M. (1994). Reflections on self-recognition in primates. Animal Behavior, 47, 909-919.
96. Heyes, C. M. (1998). Theory of mind in nonhuman primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 101-134.
97. Hill, S. D., Bundy, R. A., Gallup, G. G., & McGlure, M. K. (1970). Responsiveness of young nursery reared chimpanzees to mirrors. Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Science, 33, 77-82.
98. Hunt, G. (1996). Manufacture and use of hook-tools by New Caledonian crows. Nature, 379, 249-251.
99. Jarrold, C., Carruthers, P., Smith, P. K., & Boucher, J. (1994). Pretend play: Is it metarepresentational? Mind and Language, 9, 445-468.
100. Jensvold, M. L. A., & Fouts, R. S. (1993). Imaginary play in chimpanzees. Human Evolution, 8, 217-227.
101. Johnson, D. B. (1982). Altruistic behaviour and the development of self in infants. Merril-Palmer Quarterly, 28, 379-388.
102. Kagan, J. (1981). The second year. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
103. Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1993). Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
104. Kawai, N., & Matsuzawa, T. (2000). Numerical memory span in a chimpanzee. Nature, 403, 39-40.
105. Keenan, T. (1997, April). Understanding second-order belief predicts children's sarcasm comprehension. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.
106. Köhler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1917).
107. Kosslyn, S. M., & Thompson, W. L. (2000). Shared mechanisms in visual imagery and visual perception: Insights from cognitive neuroscience. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences (2nd ed., pp. 975-985). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
108. Kuhlmeier, V. A., Boysen, S. T., & Mukobi, K. L. R. P. (1999). Scale-model comprehension by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113, 396-402.
109. Ledbetter, D., & Basen, J. (1982). Failure to demonstrate self-recognition in gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 301-310.
110. Leslie, A. M. (1987). Pretense and representation in infancy: The origins of "theory and mind." Psychological Review, 94, 412-426.
111. Lethmate, J. (1978). Tool making by a young orangutan. Behaviour, 62, 174-189.
112. Lethmate, J. (1980). An investigation of "prestipulated" transactions with a young orangutan. Primates, 19, 727-736.
113. Lethmate, J., & Dücker, G. (1973). Untersuchungen zum Selbsterkennen im Spiegel bei Orang-Utans und einigen anderen Affenarten [Investigations into self-recognition in orangutans and some other apes]. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 33, 248-269.
114. Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum.
115. Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (1999). Intentions, consciousness and pretend play. In P. D. Zelazo, J. W. Astington, & D. R. Olson (Eds.), Developing theories of intention: Social understanding and self-control (pp. 77-94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
116. Lillard, A. S. (1993). Pretend play skills and the child's theory of mind. Child Development, 64, 348-371.
117. Lin, A. C., Bard, K. A., & Anderson, J. R. (1992). Development of self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 106, 120-127.
118. Lorenz, K. (1950). The comparative method in studying innate behaviour patterns. Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology, 4, 221-268.
119. Marten, K., & Psarakos, S. (1995). Using self-view television to disginguish between self-examination and social behavior in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Consciousness and Cognition, 4, 205-224.
120. Mathieu, M., & Bergeron, G. (1981). Piagetian assessment on cognitive development of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In A. B. Chiarelli & R. S. Corruccini (Eds.), Primate behavior and sociobiology (pp. 142-147). New York: Springer-Verlag.
121. McGrew, W. C. (1992). Chimpanzee material culture: Implications for human evolution. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
122. McKinney, M. L. (1998). Cognitive evolution by extending brain development: On recapitulation, progress, and other heresies. In L. Langer & M. Killen (Eds.), Piaget, evolution and development (pp. 9-31). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
123. Meltzoff, A. N. (1988). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59, 1221-1229.
124. Meltzoff, A. N. (1995). Understanding of the intentions of others: Reenactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 838-850.
125. Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977. October). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198, 75-78.
126. Menzel, E. W., Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Map reading in chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 29, 241-249.
127. Miklosi, A., Topal, J., & Csanyi, V. (1999). The mind of the dog: A human creation? Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Society of Animal Behavior, London, England.
128. Miles, H. L., Mitchell, R. W., & Harper, S. E. (1996). Simon says: The development of imitation in an enculturated orangutan. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 278-299). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
129. Miles, H. L. (1994). Me Chantek: The development of self-awareness in a signing orangutan. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 254-272). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
130. Mitchell, R. W. (1999). Scientific and popular conceptions of the psychology of great apes from the 1700's to the 1970's: Deja vu all over again. Primate Report, 53, 3-118.
131. Mitchell, R. W., & Anderson, J. R. (1993). Discrimination learning of scratching, but failure to obtain imitation and self-recognition in a long-tailed macaque. Primates, 34, 301-309.
132. Natale, F., & Antinucci, F. (1989). Stage 6 object-concept and representation. In Antinucci, F. (Ed.), Cognitive structure and development in non-human primates (pp. 97-112). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
133. Natale, F., Antinucci, F., Spinozzi, G., & Poti, P. (1986). Stage 6 object-concept in non-human primate cognition: A comparison between gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100, 335-339.
134. Nielsen, M., & Dissanayake, C. (2001, January). A longitudinal investigation of the emergence of mirror self-recognition, imitation and pretend play in human infants. Paper presented at the Eighteenth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Adelaide, South Australia.
135. Olson, D. R. (1993). The development of representations: The origins of mental life. Canadian Psychology, 34, 293-306.
136. Parker, S. T. (1990). Origins of comparative developmental evolutionary studies of primate mental abilities. In S. T. Parker & K. Gibson (Eds.), "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative and developmental perspectives (pp. 3-64). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
137. Parker, S. T. (1994). Incipient mirror self-recognition in zoo gorillas and chimpanzees. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 301-307). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
138. Parker, S. T. (1996), Using cladistic analysis of comparative data to reconstruct the evolution of cognitive development in hominids. In E. P. Martins (Ed.), Phylogenies and the comparative method in animal behavior (pp. 361-399). New York: Oxford University Press.
139. Parker, S. T., & Gibson, K. R. (1979). A developmental model for the evolution of language and intelligence in early hominids. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 367-408.
140. Parker, S. T., & Gibson, K. (Eds.). (1990). "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative and development perspectives. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
141. Parker, S. T., Kerr, M., Markowitz, H., & Gould, J. (1999). A survey of tool use in zoo gorillas. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & H. L. Miles (Eds.), The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans (pp. 188-193). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
142. Parker, S. T., & McKinney, M. L. (1999). Origins of intelligence: The evolution of cognitive development in monkeys, apes, and humans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
143. Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (1994). Self-awareness in animals and humans. Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press.
144. Patterson, F. (1978). Conversations with a gorilla. National Geographic, 154, 438-465.
145. Patterson, F. (1991). Self-awareness in the gorilla Koko. Gorilla, 14, 2-5.
146. Patterson, F., & Cohen, R. H. (1994). Self-recognition and self-awareness in lowland gorillas. In S. L. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animal and humans (pp. 273-290). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
147. Patterson. F., & Linden, E. (1981). The education of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
148. Pepperberg, I. M., Garcia, S. E., Jackson, E. C., & Marconi, S. (1995). Mirror use by African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109, 182-195.
149. Pepperberg, I. M., & Kozag, F. A. (1986). Object permanence in the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Animal Learning and Behavior, 14, 322-330.
150. Pepperberg, I. M., Willner, M. R., & Gravitz, L. B. (1997). Development of Piagetian object permanence in a grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 111, 63-75.
151. Perner, J. (1991). Understanding the representational mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
152. Perner, J. (1995). The many faces of belief: Reflections on Fodor's and the child's theory of mind. Cognition, 57, 241-269.
153. Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton.
154. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books.
155. Pollok, B., Prior, H., & Gunturkun, O. (2000). The development of object permanence in food-storing magpie (Pica pica). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 114, 148-157.
156. Poti, P., & Spinozzi, G. (1994). Early sensorimotor development in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 93-103.
157. Povinelli, D. J. (1989). Failure to find self-recognition in Asian elephants (Elephans maximus) in contrast to their use of mirror cues to discover hidden food. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 103, 122-131.
158. Povinelli, D. J. (1991). Social intelligence in monkeys and apes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
159. Povinelli, D. J. (1993). Reconstructing the evolution of mind. American Psychologist, 48, 493-509.
160. Povinelli, D. J. (1995). The unduplicated self. In P. Rochat (Ed.), The self in early infancy (pp. 161-192). Amsterdam: North-Holland/Elsevier.
161. Povinelli, D. J. (1996). Chimpanzee theory of mind? The long road to strong inference. In P. Carruthers & P. Smith (Eds.), Theories of theories of mind (pp. 293-329). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
162. Povinelli, D. J. (2000). Folk physics for apes. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
163. Povinelli, D. J., Bering, J. M., & Giambrone, S. (2000). Toward a science of other minds: Escaping the argument by analogy. Cognitive Science, 24, 509-542.
164. Povinelli, D. J., & Eddy, T. J. (1996). What young chimpanzees know about seeing. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 61(2, Serial No. 3).
165. Povinelli, D. J., & Eddy, T. J. (1997). Specificity of gaze following in young chimpanzees. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 213-222.
166. Povinelli, D. J., Gallup, G. G., Eddy, T. J., Bierschwale, D. T., Engstrom, M. C., Perilloux, H. K., & Toxopeus, I. B. (1997). Chimpanzees recognize themselves in mirrors. Animal Behaviour, 53, 1083-1088.
167. Povinelli, D. J., Landau, K. R., & Perilloux, H. K. (1996). Self-recognition in young children using delayed versus live feedback: Evidence for a developmental asynchrony. Child Development, 67, 1540-1554.
168. Povinelli, D. J., Landry, A. M., Theall, L. A., Clark, B. R., & Castille, C. M. (1999). Development of young children's understanding that the recent past is causally bound to the present. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1426-1439.
169. Povinelli, D. J., Nelson, K. E., & Boysen, S. T. (1990). Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 104, 203-210.
170. Povinelli, D. J., Perilloux, H. K., Reaux, J. E., & Bierschwale, D. T. (1998). Young and juvenile chimpanzees' (Pan troglodytes) reactions to intentional versus accidental and inadvertent actions. Behavioral Processes, 42, 205-218.
171. Povinelli, D. J., Rulf, A. R., Landau, K. R., & Bierschwale, D. T. (1993). Self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 347-372.
172. Premack, D. (1988). 'Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?' revisited. In R. W. Byrne & A. Whiten (Eds.), Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes and humans (pp. 160-179). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
173. Premack, D., & Premack, A. (1983). The mind of an ape. New York: Norton.
174. Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515-526.
175. Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1978). When is attribution of beliefs justified? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 592-593.
176. Reaux, J. E., Theall, L. A., & Povinelli, D. J. (1999). A longitudinal investigation of chimpanzees' understanding of visual perception. Child Development, 70, 275-290.
177. Redshaw, M. (1978). Cognitive development in human and gorilla infants. Journal of Human Evolution, 7, 133-141.
178. Rensch, B., & Döhl, J. (1968). Wahlen zwischen zwei uberschaubaren Labyringhwegen durch einen Schimpansen [Choice between two visible paths in a labyrinth by a chimpanzee]. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 25, 216-231.
179. Robinson, E. J., Nye, R., & Thomas, V. G. (1994). Children's conception of the relationship between pictures and their referents. Cognitive Development, 9, 165-191.
180. Romanes, G. J. (1882). Animal intelligence. London: Kegan Paul Trench.
181. Russon, A. E., & Galdikas, B. M. (1993). Imitation in free-ranging rehabilitant orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 147-161.
182. Ruvolo, M. (1994). Molecular evolutionary processes and conflicting gene trees: The hominoid case. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 94, 89-113.
183. Sarich, V. M., & Wilson, A. C. (1967, December 1). Immunological time scale for hominoid evolution. Science, 158, 1200-1203.
184. Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1986). Ape language, conditioned response to symbol. New York: Columbia University Press.
185. Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1998). Why are we afraid of apes with language? In A. B. Scheibel & J. W. Schopf (Eds.), The origin and evolution of intelligence (pp. 43-69). Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
186. Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., & McDonald, K. (1988). Deception and social manipulation in symbol-using apes. In R. W. Byrne & A. Whiten (Eds.), Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans (pp. 224-237). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
187. Schino, G., Spinozzi, G., & Berlinguer, L. (1990). Object concept and mental representation in Cebus apella and Macaca fascularis. Primates, 31, 537-544.
188. Stoinski, T. S., Wrate, J., Ure, N., & Whiten, A. (in press). Imitative learning by captive Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food processing task. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115.
189. Suarez, S., & Gallup, G. G. (1981). Self recognition in chimpanzees and orangutans, but not gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution, 10, 175-188.
190. Suddendorf, T. (1994). Discovery of the fourth dimension: Mental time travel and human evolution. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
191. Suddendorf, T. (1998). Simpler for evolution: Secondary representation in apes, children, and ancestors. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 131.
192. Suddendorf, T. (1999a). Children's understanding of the relation between delayed video representation and current reality: A test for self-awareness? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 157-176.
193. Suddendorf, T. (1999b). The rise of the metamind. In M. C. Corballis & S. E. G. Lea (Eds.), The descent of mind: Psychological perspectives on hominid evolution (pp. 218-260). London: Oxford University Press.
194. Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (1997). Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 123, 133-167.
195. Suddendorf, T., Fletcher-Flinn, C., & Johnston, L. (1999). Pantomime and theory of mind. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160, 31-45.
196. Swartz, K. B., & Evans, S. (1991). Not all chimpanzees show self-recognition. Primates, 32, 483-496.
197. Swartz, K. B., & Evans, S. (1994). Social and cognitive factors in chimpanzee and gorilla mirror behavior and self-recognition. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 189-206). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
198. Swartz, K. B., Sarauw, D., & Evans, S. (1999). Comparative aspects of mirror self-recognition in great apes. In S. L. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans (pp. 283-294). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
199. Tanner, J. (1985, December). Koko and Michael, Gorilla gourmets. Gorilla, 9, 3.
200. Tanner, J., & Byrne, R. W. (2000). Imitation in a captive lowland gorilla: A spontaneous experiment. Unpublished manuscript, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland.
201. Thomas, G. V., Nye, R., & Robinson, E. J. (1994). How children view pictures: Children's responses to pictures as things in themselves and as representations of something else. Cognitive Development, 9, 141-164.
202. Thompson, R. K., R., & Contie, C. L. (1994). Further reflections on mirror usage by pigeons: Lessons from Winnie-the-Pooh and Pinocchio too. In S. T. Parker, R. W. Mitchell, & M. L. Boccia (Eds.), Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 392-409). New York: Cambridge University Press.
203. Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (1997). Primate cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
204. Tomasello, M., Call, J., & Hare, B. (1998). Five primate species follow the visual gaze of conspecifics. Animal Behaviour, 55, 1063-1069.
205. Tomasello, M., Hare, B., & Agnetta, B. (1999). Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, follow gaze direction geometrically. Animal Behaviour, 58, 769-777.
206. Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 495-552.
207. Tomasello, M., Savage-Rumbaugh, S., & Kruger, A. C. (1993). Imitative learning of actions on objects by children, chimpanzees, and enculturated chimpanzees. Child Development, 64, 1688-1705.
208. Troseth, G. L., & DeLoache, J. S. (1998). The medium can obscure the message: Young children's understanding of video. Child Development, 69, 950-965.
209. Tschudin, A., Call, J., & Dunbar, R. (1999). Theory of mind in dolphins. Paper presented at the Association for the Study of Animal Behavior, London, England.
210. Van Hoof, J. A. R. A. M. (1972). A comparative approach to the phylogeny of laughter and smiling. In R. A. Hinde (Ed.), Non-verbal communication (pp. 209-238). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
211. Van Schaik, C. P., Fox, E. A., & Sitompul, A. F. (1996). Manufacture and use of tools in wild sumatran orangutans. Natunwissenschaften, 83, 186-188.
212. Vauclair, J. (1996). Animal cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
213. Visalberghi, E., & Fragaszy, D. (1990). Do monkeys ape? In S. Parker & K. Gibson (Eds.), "Language and intelligence" in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives (pp. 247-273). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
214. Visalberghi, E., & Fragaszy, D. (in press). Do monkeys ape? Ten years after. In K. Dautenhahn & C. Nehaniv (Eds.), Imitation in animals and artifacts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
215. Visalberghi, E., Fragaszy, D. M., & Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1995). Performance in a tool-using task by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), bonobos (Pan pansicus), an orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109, 52-60.
216. Visalberghi, E., & Limongelli, L. (1994). Lack of comprehension of cause-effect relationships in tool-using capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 15-22.
217. Visalberghi, E., & Trinca, L. (1989). Tool use in capuchin monkeys: Distinguishing between performing and understanding. Primates, 30, 511-521.
218. Waddell, P. J., & Penny, D. (1996). Evolutionary trees of apes and humans from DNA sequences. In A. Lock & C. R. Peters (Eds.), Handbook of symbolic evolution (pp. 53-73). Oxford. England: Oxford University Press.
219. Wellman, H. M. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
220. Wellman, H. M., & Gelman, S. A. (1992). Cognitive development: Foundational theories of core domains. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 337-420.
221. Wellman, H. M., Harris, P. L., Banerjee, M., & Sinclair, A. (1995). Early understanding of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 117-149.
222. Whiten, A. (1991). The emergence of mindreading: Steps towards an interdisciplinary exercise. In A. Whiten (Ed.), Natural theories of mind (pp. 319-331). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
223. Whiten, A. (1993a). Evolving a theory of mind: The nature of non-verbal mentalism in other primates. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds (pp. 367-396). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
224. Whiten, A. (1993b). Human enculturation, chimpanzee enculturation and the nature of imitation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 538-539.
225. Whiten, A. (1996). Imitation, pretence and mindreading: Secondary representation in comparative primatology and developmental psychology? In A. W. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes (pp. 300-324). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
226. Whiten, A. (1997). The Machiavellian mindreader. In A. Whiten & R. W. Byrne (Eds.), Machiavellian intelligence (Vol. 2. pp. 144-173). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
227. Whiten, A. (1998a). Evolutionary and developmental origins of the mindreading system. In J. Langer & M. Killen (Eds.), Piaget, evolution and development (pp. 73-99). Hove, England: Erlbaum.
228. Whiten, A. (1998b). Imitation of the sequential structure of actions by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112, 270-281.
229. Whiten, A. (2000a). Chimpanzee cognition and the question of mental re-representation. In D. Sperber (Ed.), Metarepresentations (pp. 139-167). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
230. Whiten, A. (2000b). Primate culture and social learning. Cognitive Science, 24, 477-508.
231. Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1988a). The manipulation of attention in primate tactical deception. In R. W. Byrne & A. Whiten (Eds.), Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes and humans (pp. 211-223). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
232. Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1988b). Tactical deception in primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 233-273.
233. Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1991). The emergence of metarepresentation in human ontogeny and primate phylogeny. In A. Whiten (Ed.), Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development and simulation of everyday mindreading (pp. 267-281). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
234. Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., & Boesch, C. (1999, June 17). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 682-685.
235. Whiten, A., & Ham, R. (1992). On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: Reappraisal of a century of research. In P. J. B. Slater, J. S. Rosenblatt, C. Beer, & M. Milinski (Eds.), Advances in the study of behavior (pp. 239-283). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
236. Whiten, A., & Perner, J. (1991). Fundamental issues in the multidisciplinary study of mindreading. In A. Whiten (Ed.), Natural theories of mind (pp. 1-21). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
237. Williams, J. H. G., Whiten, A., Suddendorf, T., & Perrett, D. I. (2001). Imitation, mirror neurons and autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Review, 125, 287-295.
238. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103-128.
239. Winner, E., & Leekam, S. (1991). Distinguishing irony from deception: Understanding the speaker's second-order intention. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 257-270.
240. Wood, S., Moriatry, K. M., Gardner, B. T., & Gardner, R. A. (1980). Object permanence in child and chimpanzee. Animal Learning and Behavior, 8, 3-9.
241. Wrangham, R., & Peterson, D. (1996). Demonic males. London: Bloomsbury.
242. Xitco, M. J. (1988). Mimicry of modeled behaviors by bottlenose dolphins. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
243. Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979). Child rearing and children's prosocial imitations towards victims of distress. Child Development, 50, 319-330.
244. Zelazo, P. D., Sommerville, J. A., & Nichols, S. (1999). Age-related changes in children's use of external representations. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1059-1071.
245. Zentall, T. R., Sutton, J. E., & Sherburne, L. M. (1996). True imitative learning in pigeons. Psychological Science, 7, 343-346.