The paleoecology of the Upper Laetolil Beds at Laetoli: A reconsideration of the large mammal evidence

Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology

Volumn , Issue 9781402030970, 2007, Pages 279-313

  Su, D F ^a   Harrison, T ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Ecological diversity analysis; Ecovariables

Indexed keywords

EID: 85045971236     PISSN: 18779077     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-3098-7_11     Document Type: Chapter

References (203)

1. Agnew, N., Demas, M., Leakey, M.D., 1996. The Laetoli footprints. Science 271, 1651–1652.
2. Alemseged, Z., 2003. An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 44, 451–478.
3. Andrews, P., 1989. Palaeoecology of Laetoli. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 173–181.
4. Andrews, P., 1990. Small mammal taphonomy. In: Lindsey, E.H., Fahlbusch, V., Mein, P. (Eds.), European Neogene Mammal Chronology. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 487–494.
5. Andrews, P., Humphrey, L., 1999. African Miocene environments and the transition to early Hominins. In: Bromage, T.G., Schrenk, F. (Eds.), African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Human Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 282–300.
6. Andrews, P., Nesbit Evans, E.M., 1983. Small mammal bone accumulations produced by mammalian carnivores. Paleobiology 9, 289–307.
7. Andrews, P., Lord, J.M., Nesbit Evans, E.M., 1979. Patterns of ecological diversity in fossil and modern mammalian faunas. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 11, 177–205.
8. Anonymous, 1995. Saving our roots from roots. Science 267, 171.
9. Ansell, W.F.H., 1960. Mammals of Northern Rhodesia. Government Printer, Lusaka.
10. Ansell, W.F.H., 1978. The Mammals of Zambia. National Park and Wildlife Service, Chilanga, Zambia.
11. Aronson, J.L., Taieb, M., 1981. Geology and paleogeography of the Hadar hominid site, Ethiopia. In: Rapp, G., Vondra, C.F. (Eds.), Hominid Sites: Their Geologic Settings. Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 165–195.
12. Avenant, N.L., Nel, J.A., 2002. Among habitat variation in prey availability and use by caracal Felis caracal. Mammalian Biology 67, 18–33.
13. Barry, J.C., 1987. Large carnivores (Canidae, Hyaenidae, Felidae) from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 235–258.
14. Barton, R.A., 1989. Foraging strategies, diet and composition in olive baboons. Ph.D. Thesis, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland.
15. Beden, M., 1987. Fossil Elephantidae from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 259–294.
16. Behrensmeyer, A.K., Western, D., Dechant Boaz, D.E., 1979. New perspectives in vertebrate paleoecology from a recent bone assemblage. Paleobiology 5, 12–21.
17. Bishop, L., 1995. Reconstructing omnivore paleoecology and habitat preference in the Pliocene and Pleistocene of Africa. Paper for a symposium on African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Early Hominid Evolution. Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research: An International Symposium.
18. Bishop, L., 1999. Suid paleoecology and habitat preferences at African Pliocene and Pleistocene Hominid localities. In: Bromage, T.G., Schrenk, F. (Eds.), African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Human Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 216–225.
19. Blamey, A.H., Jackson, W.T., 1956. The elusive little piti. African Wildlife 10, 295–299.
20. Boaz, N., 1977. Paleoecology of Plio-Pleistocene Hominidae of the Lower Omo Basin. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Oakland, California.
21. Bobe, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Chapman, R., 2002. Faunal change, environmental variability and late Pliocene hominin evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 42, 475–497.
22. Bonnefille, R., 1983. Evidence for a cooler and drier climate in the Ethiopian uplands toward 2.3 Myr ago. Nature 303, 487–491.
23. Bonnefille, R., 1986a. Palaeoenvironmental implications of a pollen assemblage from the Koobi For a formation (East Rudolph), Kenya. Nature 264, 403–407.
24. Bonnefille, R., 1986b. Palynological evidence for an important change in the vegetation of the Omo Basin between 2.5 and 2 million years. In: Coppens, Y., Howell, F.C., Isaac, G.L., Leakey, R.E. (Eds.), Earliest Man and Environments in the Lake Rudolf Basin. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 421–431.
25. Bonnefille, R., DeChamps, R., 1983. Data on Fossil Flora. In: de Heinzelin, J. (Ed.), The Omo Group: Archives of the International Omo Research Expedition, Annales, S. 8, Sciences Geologiques, pp. 191–207. Musée de l’Afrique Centrale, Tervuren.
26. Bonnefille, R., Riollet, G., 1987. Palynological spectra from the Upper Laetolil Beds. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 52–61.
27. Bonnefille, R. Vincens, A., Buchet, G., 1987. Palynology and Paleoenvironment of a Pliocene Hominid Site (2.9–3.3 My) at Hadar, Ethiopia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 60, 249–281.
28. Bonnefille, R., Potts, R., Chalié, F., Jolly, D., Peyron, O. 2004. High-resolution vegetation and climate change associated with Pliocene Australopithecus afarensis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, 12125–12129.
29. Bothma, J. du P., 1966. Notes on the stomach contents of certain Carnivora (Mammalia) from the Kalahari Gemsbok Park. Koedoe 9, 37–39.
30. Bronikowski, A.M., Altmann, J., 1996. Foraging in a variable environment: weather patterns and the behavioural ecology of baboons. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 39, 11–25.
31. Butler, P.M., 1987. Fossil insectivores from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 85–87.
32. Cadman, A., Rayner, R.J.R., 1989. Climatic change and the appearance of Australopithecus africanus in the Makapansgat sediments. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 107–113.
33. Cerling, T.E., 1992. Development of grasslands and savannas in East Africa during the Neogene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 97, 241–247.
34. Cerling, T.E., Hay, R.L., O’Neil, J.R., 1977. Isotopic evidence for dramatic changes in East Africa during the Pleistocene. Nature 267, 137–138.
35. Cerling, T.E., Harris, J.M., Leakey, M.G., 1999. Browsing and grazing in elephants: the isotope record of modern and fossil proboscideans. Oecologia 120, 364–374.
36. Cerling, T.E., Harris, J.M., Leakey, M.G., 2003a. Isotope paleoecology of the Nawata and Nachukui Formations at Lothagam, Turkana Basin, Kenya. In: Leakey, M.G., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 605–624.
37. Cerling, T.E., Harris, J.M., Passey, B.H., 2003b. Diets of East African Bovidae based on stable isotope analysis. Journal of Mammalogy 84, 456–470.
38. Child, G.S., 1964. Some notes on the mammals of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes and Records 53, 77–89.
39. Child, G., Robbel, H., Hepburn, C.P., 1972. Observations on the biology of tsessebe, Damaliscus lunatus lunatus, in northern Botswana. Mammalia 36, 342–388.
40. Coe, M., McWilliam, N., Stone, G., Packer, M., 1999. Mkomazi: The Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation of a Tanzanian Savanna. Royal Geographical Society (with The Institute of British Geographers), London.
41. Damuth, J.D., 1990. Problems in estimating body masses of archaic ungulates using dental measurements. In: Damuth, J.D., MacFadden, B.J. (Eds.), Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 229–253.
42. Dankwa-Wiredu, B., Euler, D.L., 2002. Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus Pallas) habitat in Mole National Park, northern Ghana. African Journal of Ecology 40, 35–41.
43. Dart, R.A., 1952. Faunal and climatic fluctuations in Makapansgat Valley: their relation to the geologic age and Promethean status of Australopithecus. In: Leakey, L.S.B., Cole, S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st Pan African Congress on Prehistory, Nairobi, 1947, pp. 96–106.
44. Davidge, C., 1978. Ecology of baboons (Papio ursinus) at Cape Point. Zoologica Africana 13, 329–350.
45. Davies, C., 1987a. Fossil Pedetidae (Rodentia) from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 171–190.
46. Davies, C., 1987b. Note on the fossil Lagomorpha from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 190–193.
47. Denys, C., 1985. Palaeoenvironmental and palaeobio-geographical significance of the fossil rodent assemblages of Laetoli (Pliocene, Tanzania). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 52, 77–97.
48. Denys, C., 1987. Fossil rodents (other than Pedetidae) from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 118–170.
49. Depew, L.A., 1983. Ecology and behaviour of baboons (Papio anubis) in the Shai Hills Game Production Reserve, Ghana. M.Sc. Thesis, Cape Coast University, Ghana.
50. Dieckmann, R.C., 1980. The ecology and breeding biology of the gemsbok Oryx gazella gazella (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Hester Malan Nature Reserve. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
51. Dodson, P., 1973. The significance of small bones in paleoecological interpretation. Contributions to Geology 12, 15–19.
52. Dörgeloh, W.G., 2000. Relative densities and habitat utilization of non-utilized, terrestrial gamebird populations in a natural savanna, South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 38, 31–37.
53. Drake, R.E., Curtis, G.H., 1979. Radioisotope date of the Laetolil Beds, the Hadar Formation and the Koobi Fora-Shungura Formations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 50, 433–434.
54. Drake, R.E., Curtis, G.H., 1987. K-Ar Geochronology of the Laetoli fossil localities. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 48–52.
55. Dunbar, R.I.M., Dunbar, P., 1974. Ecological relations and niche separation between sympatric terrestrial primates in Ethiopia. Folia Primatologica 21, 36–60.
56. Eck, G.G., 1976. Cercopithecoidea from Omo Group deposits. In: Coppens, Y., Howell, F.C., Isaac, G.L., Leakey, R.E. (Eds.), Earliest Man and Environments in the Lake Rudolf Basin. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 332–344.
57. Eck, G.G., Jablonski, N.G., 1985. The skull of Theropithecus brumpti compared with those of other species of the genus Theropithecus. In: Coppens, Y., Howell, F.C. (Eds.), Les Faunes Plio-Pléistocènes de la basse vallée de l’Omo (Éthiopie). Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, pp. 18–122.
58. Eloff, F.C., 1964. On the predatory habits of lions and hyaenas. Koedoe 7, 105–112.
59. Fashing, P.J., 2001. Feeding ecology of guereza in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya: the importance of Moraceae fruit in their diet. International Journal of Primatology 22, 579–609.
60. Feibel, C.S., Harris, J.M., Brown, F.H., 1991. Palaeoenvironmental context for the late Neogene of the Turkana Basin. In: Harris, J.M. (Ed.), Koobi Fora Research Project, Volume 3: The Fossil Ungulates: Geology, Fossil Artiodactyls, and Paleoenvironments. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 321–370.
61. Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., 1995. Small mammal taphonomy at La Trinchera de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). A remarkable example of taphonomic criteria used for stratigraphic correlations and palaeoenvironment interpretations. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 114, 167–195.
62. Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., 1996. Small mammal taphonomy and the Middle Pleistocene environments of Dolina, Northern Spain. Quaternary International 33, 21–34.
63. Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., Andrews, P., 1992. Small mammal taphonomy of Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos), Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science 19, 407–428.
64. Ferreira, N.A., Bigalke, R.C., 1987. Food selection by grey rhebuck in the Orange Free State. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 17, 123–127.
65. Flynn, J.J., 1986. Faunal provinces and the Simpson coefficient. Contributions to Geology., pp. 317– 338. University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, Special Paper 3.
66. Gagnon, M., Chew, A.E., 2000. Dietary preferences in extant African Bovidae. Journal of Mammalogy 81, 490–511.
67. Gaynor, D., 1994. Foraging and feeding behaviour of chacma baboons in a woodland habitat. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Natal, Natal.
68. Gentry, A.W., 1976. Bovidae of the Omo Group deposits. In: Coppens, Y., Howell, F.C., Isaac, G.L., Leakey, R.E. (Eds.), Earliest Man and Environments in the Lake Rudolf Basin. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 275–292.
69. Gentry, A.W., 1987. Pliocene Bovidae from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 378–408.
70. Goddard, J., 1968. Food preferences of two black rhinoceros populations. East African Wildlife Journal 6, 1–18.
71. Grafton, R.N., 1965. Food of the black-backed jackal: a preliminary report. Zoologica Africana 1, 41–53.
72. Gray, B.T., 1980. Environmental reconstruction of the Hadar Formation (Afar, Ethiopia). Ph.D. Dissertation, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.
73. Grobler, J.H., Wilson, V.J., 1972. Food of the leopard Panthera pardus (Linn.) in the Rhodes Matopos National Park, Rhodeisa, as determined by faecal analysis. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 5, 1–10.
74. Happold, D.C.D., 1987. The Mammals of Nigeria.
75. Harris, J.M., 1983. Background to the study of the Koobi Fora fossil faunas. In: Leakey, M.G., Leakey, R.E. (Eds.), Koobi Fora Research Project, Volume II. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 1–21.
76. Harris, J.M., 1987a. Summary. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 524–531.
77. Harris, J.M., 1987b. Fossil Suidae from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 349–358.
78. Harris, J.M., 1991. Koobi Fora Research Project, Volume 3: The Fossil Ungulates, Geology, Fossil Artiodactyls, and Palaeoenvrionments. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
79. Harris, J.M., Cerling, T.E., 2002. Dietary adaptations of extant and Neogene African suids. Journal of Zoology. Lond. 256, 45–54.
80. Harris, J.M., White, T.D., 1979. Evolution of the Plio-Pleistocene African Suidae. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 69, 1–128.
81. Harrison, T., 2002. The first record of fossil hominino from the Ndolanya Bedo, Laetoli, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 119, 83.
82. Harrison, T., 2005. Fossil Bird Eggs from the Pliocene of Laetoli, Tanzania: Their Taxonomic and Paleoecological Relationships. Journal of African Earth Sciences 41, 289–302.
83. Harrison, T., Msuya, C., 2005. Fossil struthinid eggshells from Laetoli, Tanzania: Taxonomic and Biostratigraphic Significance. Journal of African Earth Sciences 41, 303–315.
84. Hay, R.L., 1976. Geology of the Olduvai Gorge: A Study of Sedimentation in a Semiarid Basin. University of California Press, Berkeley.
85. Hay, R.L., 1978. Melilitite-carbonotite tuffs in the Laetolil Beds of Tanzania. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 17, 255–274.
86. Hay, R.L., 1981. Paleoenvironment of the Laetolil Beds, Northern Tanzania. In: Rapp, G., Vondra, C.F. (Eds.), Hominid Sites: Their Geologic Settings. Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 7–24.
87. Hay, R.L., 1987. Geology of the Laetoli area. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 23–47.
88. Hay, R.L., Reader, R.J., 1982. The fossil footprints of Laetoli. Scientific American 246, 50–57.
89. Hill, R.A., Dunbar, R.I.M., 2002. Climatic determinants of diet and foraging behaviour in baboons. Evolutionary Ecology 16, 579–593.
90. Hoffman, R., 1988. The contribution of raptorial birds to patterning in small mammal assemblages. Paleobiology 14, 81–90.
91. Hooijer, D.A., 1987. Hipparion teeth from the Ndolanya Beds. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 312–315.
92. Janis, C.M., 1988. An estimation of tooth volume and hypsodonty indices in ungulate mammals, and the correlation of these factors with dietary preference. In: Russel, D.E., Santoro, J.-P., Sigogneau-Russell, D. (Eds.), Teeth Revisited: Proceedings of the VIIth International Symposium on Dental Morphology, Paris 1986. Memoirs of the Museé Nationale de l’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, pp. 367–387.
93. Janis, C.M., 1990. Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids. In: Damuth, J.D., MacFadden, B.J. (Eds.), Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 255–300.
94. Joubert, S.C., 1976. The population ecology of the roan antelope, Hippotragus equinus equinus (Desmarest, 1804) in the Kruger National Park. D.Sc. Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
95. Jungius, H., 1971. The Biology and Behaviour of the Reedbuck Redunca arundinum Boddaert, 1785 in the Kruger National Park. Mammalia Depicta. Paul Parey, Hamburg.
96. Kaiser, T., Bromage, T.G., Schrenk, F., 1995. Hominid Corridor Research Project update: new Pliocene fossil localities at Lake Manyara and putative oldest Early Stone Age occurrences at Laetoli (Upper Ndolanya Beds), northern Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 28, 117–120.
97. Kappelman, J., Plummer, T., Bishop, L., Duncan, A., Appleton, S., 1997. Bovids as indicators of Plio-Pleistocene paleoenvironments in East Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 32, 229–256.
98. Kay, R.F., 1984. On the use of anatomical features to infer foraging behavior in extinct primates. In: Rodman, P.S., Cant, I.G. (Eds.), Adaptations for Foraging in Nonhuman Primates. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 21–53.
99. Kent, P.E., 1941. The recent history and Pleistocene deposits of the plateau north of Lake Eyasi, Tanganyika. Geological Magazine 78, 173–184.
100. Kingdon, J., 1974a. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume I. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
101. Kingdon, J., 1974b. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIA (Insectivores and Bats). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
102. Kingdon, J., 1974c. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIB (Hares and Rodents). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
103. Kingdon, J., 1974d. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIIA (Carnivores). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
104. Kingdon, J., 1974e. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIIB (Large Mammals). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
105. Kingdon, J., 1974f. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIIC (Bovids). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
106. Kingdon, J., 1974g. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume IIID (Bovids). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
107. Kingdon, J., 1997. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Academic Press, San Diego.
108. Korth, W.M., 1979. Taphonomy of microvertebrate fossil assemblages. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 48, 235–285.
109. Kovarovic, K., Andrews, P., Aiello, L., 2002. The palaeoecology of the Upper Ndolanya Beds at Laetoli, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 43, 395–418.
110. Kummer, H., 1968. Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons. Karger, Basel.
111. Kyauka, P.S., Ndessokia, P., 1990. A new hominid tooth from Laetoli, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 19, 747–750.
112. Lamprey, H.F., 1962. The Tangarire Game Reserve. Tanganyika Notes and Records 60, 10–22.
113. Lamprey, H.F., 1963. Ecological separation of the large mammal species in the Tarangire Game Reserve, Tanganyika. East African Wildlife Journal 1, 63–92.
114. Leakey, M.D., 1981. Tracks and Tools. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 282, 95–102.
115. Leakey, M.D., 1987a. Introduction. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 1–22.
116. Leakey, M.D., 1987b. The hominid footprints: introduction. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 490–496.
117. Leakey, M.D., 1987c. The Laetoli hominid remains. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 108–109.
118. Leakey, M.D., Delson, E., 1987. Fossil Cercopithecidae from the Laetolil Beds. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 91–107.
119. Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), 1987. Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
120. Leakey, M.D., Hay, R.L., 1979. Pliocene footprints in the Laetolil Beds at Laetoli, northern Tanzania. Nature 278, 317–323.
121. Leakey, M.D., Hay, R.L., 1982. Les empreintes de pas fossils de Laetoli. Pour la Science 52, 28–37.
122. Leakey, M.D., Hay, R.L., Curtis, G.H., Drake, R.E., Jackes, M.K., White, T., 1976. Fossil hominids from the Laetolil Beds. Nature 262, 460–466.
123. Leakey, M.G., Harris, J.M., 2003. Lothagam: its significance and contributions. In: Leakey, M.G., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 625–660.
124. Leakey, M.G., Feibel, C.S., McDougall, I., Walker, A., 1995. New four-million-year-old hominid species from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature 376, 565–571.
125. Lewis, M.E., 1995. Plio-Pleistocene carnivoran guilds: implications for hominid paleoecology. Ph.D. Thesis, State University of New York, Stony Brook.
126. Maberly, C.T., 1950. The African bushpig – sagacious and intelligent. African Wildlife 4, 14–18.
127. Manega, P., 1993. Geochronology, geochemistry and isotopic study of the Plio-Pleistocene hominid sites and the Ngorongora volcanic highlands in northern Tanzania. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder.
128. Marean, C.W., 1989. Sabertooth cats and their relevance for early hominid diet and evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 559–582.
129. McDougall, I., Feibel, C.S., 2003. Numerical age control for the Miocene-Pliocene succession at Lothagam, a hominoid-bearing sequence in the northern Kenya rift. In: Leakey, M.G., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 43–64.
130. McKee, J.K., 1999. The Autocatalytic Nature of Hominid Evolution in African Plio-Pleistocene Environments. In: Bromage, T.G., Schrenk, F. (Eds.), African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Human Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 57–75.
131. Melton, D.A., 1976. The biology of aardvark (Tubulidentata Orycteropodidae). Mammal Review 6, 75–88.
132. Meylan, P.A., 1987. Fossil snakes from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 78–81.
133. Milstein, P. le S., 1971. The bushpig Potamochoerus porcus as a problem animal in South Africa. Report, Entomological Symposium, Pretoria.
134. Mitchell, B.L., Uys, J.M.C., 1961. The problem of the lechwe (Kobus leche) on the Kafue Flats. Oryx 6, 171–183.
135. Mitchell, B.L., Shenton, J., Uys, J., 1965. Predation of large mammals in the Kafue National Park, Zambia. Zoologica Africana 1, 297–318.
136. Musiba, C., 1999. Laetoli Pliocene paleoecology: a reanalysis via morphological and behavioral approaches. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
137. Nakaya, H., 1994. Faunal change of late Miocene Africa and Eurasia: mammalian fauna from the Namurungule Formation, Samburu Hills, Northern Kenya. African Studies Monograph 20 (Suppl.), 1–112.
138. Ndessokia, P.N., 1990. The mammalian fauna and archaeology of the Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds, Laetoli, Tanzania. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
139. Norton, G.W., Rhine, R.J., Wynn, G.W., Wynn, R.D., 1987. Baboon diet: a five-year study of stability and variability of the plant feeding and habitat of the yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatologica 48, 78–120.
140. Novellie, P.A., 1983. Feeding ecology of the kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros (Pallas) in the Kruger National Park. D.Sc. Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
141. Oates, J.F., 1994. The natural history of African Colobines. In: Davies, A.G., Oates, J.F. (Eds.), Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 75–128.
142. Owen, R.E.A., 1970. Some observations on the sitatunga in Kenya. East African Wildlife Journal 8, 181–195.
143. Owen-Smith, N., 1973. The behavioural ecology of the white rhinoceros. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
144. Petter, G., 1987. Small carnivores (Viverridae, Mustelidae, Canidae) from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 194–234.
145. Pickering, R., 1964. Endulen. Quarter Degree Sheet 52. Geological Survey of Tanzania.
146. Pienaar, U. de V., 1969. Predatory-prey relationships amongst the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 12, 108–187.
147. Player, I.C., Feely, J.M., 1960. A preliminary report on the square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Lammergeyer 1, 3–21.
148. Post, D.G., 1978. Feeding and ranging behaviour of the yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
149. Rahm, U., 1966. Les mammifères de la forêt équatoriale de l’est du Congo. Musee Royal de l’Afrique Centrale Annales Serie 8, No. 149, 39–121.
150. Rasmussen, D.R., 1978. Environmental and behavioural correlates of changes in range use in a troop of yellow (Papio cynocephalus) and a troop of olive (Papio anubis) baboons. Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Riverside.
151. Rautenbach, I.L., 1978a. A numerical re-appraisal of southern African biotic zones. Bulletin of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 6, 175–187.
152. Rautenbach, I.L., 1978b. Ecological distribution of the mammals of the Transvaal (Vertebrata: Mammalia). Annals of the Transvaal Museum 31, 131–153.
153. Reed, K.E., 1996. The paleoecology of Makapansgat and other African Pliocene Hominid Localities. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York, Stony Brook.
154. Reed, K.E., 1997. Early hominid evolution and ecological change through the African Plio-Pleistocene. Journal of Human Evolution 32, 289–322.
155. Reed, K.E., 1998. Using large mammal communities to examine ecological and taxonomic structure and predict vegetation in extant and extinct assemblages. Paleobiology 24, 384–408.
156. Robbins, L.M., 1987. Hominid footprints from Site G. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 497–502.
157. Sauer J.J., Skinner, J.D., Neitz, R., 1982. Seasonal utilisation of leaves by giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis and the relationship of the seasonal utilisation to the chemical composition of the leaves. South African Journal of Zoology 17, 210–219.
158. Schaller, G.B., 1968. Hunting behavior of the cheetah in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. East African Wildlife Journal 6, 95–100.
159. Sharman, M., 1981. Feeding, ranging and social organization of the guinea baboon. Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
160. Sheppe, W., Osborne, T., 1971. Patterns of use of a flood plains by Zambian mammals. Ecological Monographs 41, 179–205.
161. Shortridge, G.C., 1934. The Mammals of South West Africa, Volumes I and II. Heinemann, London.
162. Simpson, G.G., 1960. Notes on the measurement of faunal resemblance. American Journal of Science 258-A, 300–311.
163. Sinclair, A.R.E., 1977. The African Buffalo: A Study of Resource Limitation of Populations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
164. Skinner, J.D., Smithers, R.H., 1990. The Animals of the Southern African Subregion, 2 ed. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
165. Skinner, J.D., Breytenbach, G.J., Maberly, C.T., 1976. Observations on the ecology and biology of the bushpig, Potamochoerus porcus Linn. in the northern Transvaal. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 6, 123–128.
166. Skinner, J.D., Davis, S., Ilani, G., 1980. Bone collecting by striped hyaenas, Hyaena hyaena, in Isreal. Palaentologica Africana 23, 99–104.
167. Smithers, R.H., 1971. The Mammals of Botswana. Trustees of the National Museum of Rhodesia, Salisbury.
168. Smithers, R.H., 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
169. Spencer, L.M., 1995. Antelopes and grasslands: reconstructing African hominid environments. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York, Stony Brook.
170. Sponheimer, M., Reed, K.E., Lee-Thorp, J.A., 1999. Combining isotopic and ecomorphological data to refine bovid paleodietary reconstruction: a case study from the Makapansgat Limeworks hominin locality. Journal of Human Evolution 36, 705–718.
171. Sponheimer, M., Lee-Thorp, J.A., DeRuiter, D.J., Smith, J.M., van der Merwe, N.J., Reed, K., Grant, C.C., Ayliffe, L.K., Robinson, T.F., Heidelberger, C., Marcus, W., 2003. Diets of southern African Bovidae: stable isotope evidence. Journal of Mammalogy 84, 471–479.
172. Stewart, K.M., 2003. Fossil fish remains from Mio-Pliocene at Lothagam, Kenya. In: Leakey, M.G., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa. Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 75–111.
173. Stuart, C.T., 1977. The distribution, status, feeding and reproduction of carnivores of the Cape Province. Research Reports, Department of Nature and Environment, Conservation of Mammals 91–174.
174. Swynnerton, G.H., 1958. Fauna of the Serengeti National Park. Mammalia 22, 435–450.
175. Tinley, K.L., 1969. Dikdik, Madoqua kirkii, in South West Africa: notes on distribution, ecology and behaviour. Madoqua 1, 7–33.
176. Tuttle, R.H., 1985. Ape footprints and Laetoli impressions: a response to the SUNY claims. In: Tobias, P.V. (Ed.), Hominid Evolution: Past Present, and Future. Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 129–133.
177. Tuttle, R.H., 1987. Kinesiological inferences and evolutionary implications from Laetoli bipedaltrails G-1, G-2/3, and A. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 503–523.
178. Tuttle, R.H., 1990. The pitted pattern of Laetoli feet. Natural History 90, 60–65.
179. Tuttle, R.H., Webb, D., Tuttle, N., 1991. Laetoli footprint trails and the evolution of hominid bipedalism. In: Coppens, Y., Senut, B. (Eds.), Origine(s) de la bipédie chez les hominids. CNRS, Paris, pp. 203–218.
180. Tuttle, R.H., Webb, D., Tuttle, N., Baksh, M., 1992. Footprints and gaits of bipedal apes, bears, and barefoot peoples: perspectives on Pliocene tracks. In: Matano, S., Tuttle, R.H., Ishida, H., Goodman, M. (Eds.), Topics in Primatology, Volume 3: Evolution, Biology, Reproductive Endocrinology, and Viology. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 221–242.
181. Van Couvering, J.A.H., Van Couvering, J.A., 1976. Early Miocene mammal fossils from East Africa: aspects of geology, faunistics, and paleoecology. In: Isaac, G.L., McCown, E.R. (Eds.), Human Origins: Louis Leakey and the East African Evidence. Staples Press, Menlo Park, CA, pp. 155–207.
182. Van Valkenburgh, B., 1985. Locomotor diversity within past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 11, 406–428.
183. Van Valkenburgh, B., 1988. Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 14, 155–173.
184. Van Valkenburgh, B., 1990. Carnivore dental adaptations and diet: a study of trophic diversity within guilds. In: Gittleman, J.L. (Ed.), Carnivore Behavior, Ecology and Evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, pp. 410–435.
185. Verdcourt, B., 1987. Mollusca from the Laetolil and Upper Ndolanya Beds. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 438–450.
186. Vesey-FitzGerald, D.F., 1964. Mammals of the Rukwa Valley. Tanganyika Notes and Records 62, 61–72.
187. Vincens, A., 1979. Paynologie, environnements actuels et plio-pléistocène à l’Est Turkana (Kenya). Ph.D. Dissertation, University d’Aix, Marseille.
188. Vrba, E.S., 1980. The significance of bovid remains as indicators of environment and prediction patterns. In: Behrensmeyer, A.K., Hill, A. (Eds.), Fossils in the Making: Vertebrate Taphonomy and Paleoecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 247–271.
189. Walker, A.C., 1987. Fossil Galaginae from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 88–91.
190. Watson, G.E., 1987. Pliocene bird fossils from Laetoli. In: Leakey, M.D., Harris, J.M. (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 82–83.
191. Wells, L.H., Cooke, H.S.B., 1956. Fossil bovidae from the Limeworks quarry, Makapansgat, Potgietersrust. Palaeontologica Africana 4, 1–55.
192. Werdelin, L., Lewis, M. E., 2001. A revision of the genus Dinofelis (Mammalia, Felidae). Zoological Journal Linnean Society 132, 147–258.
193. Wesselman, H.B., 1985. Fossil micromammals as indicators of climatic change about 2.4 Myr ago in the Omo valley, Ethiopia. South African Journal of Science 81, 260–261.
194. White, T.D., 1977. New fossil hominids from Laetoli, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46, 197–230.
195. White, T.D., 1980. Additional fossil hominids from Laetoli, Tanzania: 1976–1979 specimens. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53, 487–504.
196. White, T.D., 1981. Primitive hominid canine from Tanzania. Science 213, 348–349.
197. White, T.D., 1985. The hominids of Hadar and Laetoli: an element-by-element comparison of the dental samples. In: Delson, E. (Ed.), Ancestors: The Hard Evidence. Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 138–152.
198. White, T.D., 1989. Evolutionary implications of Pliocene hominid footprints. Science 208, 175–176.
199. White, T.D., Suwa, G., 1987. Hominid footprints at Laetoli – facts and interpretations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 72, 485–514.
200. Williamson, G.R., 1975. The condition and nutrition of elephant in Wankie National Park. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 7, 1–20.
201. Wilson, V.J., 1966. Notes on the food and feeding habits of the common duiker, Sylvicapra grimmia, in eastern Zambia. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 2, 1–19.
202. Wilson, V.J., 1969. The large mammals of the Rhodes Matopos National Park. Arnoldia (Rhodesia) 4, 1–32.
203. Zar, J.H., 1999. Biostatistical Analysis. Upper Saddle River. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.