The European union's New Africa strategy: Grounds for cautious optimism

European Foreign Affairs Review

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 527-553

  Kingah, S S ^a  

^a VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL   (Belgium)

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EID: 85044979305     PISSN: 13846299     EISSN: 18758223     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.54648/eerr2006041     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. L. Michel, 'Important Goals for the Future' (June 2005) 1 E-Courier, p. 3.
2. Commission of the European Communities (CEC), 'EU Strategy for Africa: Towards a Euro-African Pact to Accelerate Africa's Development', SEC(2005)1255, Brussels (12.10.2005), COM(2005)489 final.
3. European Council, 'Presidency Conclusions', 15-16 December 2005, p. 2.
4. For instance, Council of the European Union (CEU), 'Review of the Common Position Concerning Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa', Brussels, 23 January 2002 (25.01) (OR. Fr/en) 5603/1/02, REV 1, PESC 6
5. CEU, 'Africa-Europe Dialogue (Follow-up to the Cairo Summit)', Second Ministerial Meeting, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 28 November 2002, Brussels, 3 December 2002.
6. D. Willem and S. Bilal, 'Foreign Direct Investment in the Cotonou Partnership Agreement: Building on Private Sector Initiatives' in O. Babarinde and G. Faber (eds), The European Union and the Developing Countries: The Cotounou Agreement (Koninklijke Brill BV, Leiden, 2005), pp. 197-218 at p. 213.
7. EPAs are WTO-compatible trading arrangements between the EU and six ACP regional groupings, four of which are in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The CPA (Articles 36-38) provides for the creation of EPAs between the EC and ACP regional configurations. The EPAs that have been established include the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the Pacific, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS plus Mauritania), the Southern African Development Community Group (SADC Group), the EPA for East and Southern Africa (ESA) and the Central African Economic and Monetary Union plus Sâo Tomé e Principe (CEMAC plus STP). The EPAs are expected to be based 'To the maximum extent possible' (Annex IV on Implementation and Management Procedures, Article 7) on ACP regional economic communities. Membership configuration of the EPAs is as follows: a) Caribbean EPA: Antigua & Barbuda, The Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, The Dominican Republic, Granada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent & The Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago. Mindful that Cuba has not signed the CPA, it is not part of the negotiations. b) Pacific EPA: Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. c) ECOWAS plus Mauritania EPA: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo. d) ESA EPA: Burundi, Comoros, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. e) CEMAC plus Sao Tomé e Principe EPA: Cameroon, The Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Sâo Tomé & Principe f) SADC Group EPA: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland and Tanzania. South Africa participates as an observer. For the latest statement on the EPA configuration and negotiations see CEC, 'Commission Staff Paper, The Trade and Development Aspects of EPA Negotiations' (October 2005).
8. See The Barcelona Declaration adopted at the Euro-Mediterranean Conference, , 27-28 November, 1995.
9. O. Ojo, 'The Future of African-European Relations: Some Concluding Remarks' in O. Ojo (ed.), Africa and Europe: The Changing Economic Relationship (Zed Books, London, 1996), pp. 166-175 at p. 170.
10. C. Katungi, 'Regional Cooperation within the ACP/EEC Convention' in A. Nyang'o (ed.), Regional Integration in Africa: Unfinished Agenda (African Academy of Sciences Publishers, Nairobi, 1990), pp. 183-203 at p. 187.
11. The Strategy, note 2 above at p. 2; M. Martinelli, 'Helping Transition: The EU Police Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the Framework of EU Policies in the Great Lakes,' (2006) 11 EFA Rev., pp. 379-399 at p. 381.
12. P. Lamy, 'EU and ACP Countries Negotiate Economic Partnership Agreements,' interview conducted by K. Karl, (August 2002) 193 ACP-EU Courier, p. 12.
13. The Strategy, note 2 above at p. 13; W. Brown, The European Union and Africa: The Restructuring of North-South Relations (IB Taurus, London, 2002), pp. 55, 61, 70
14. K. Kennedy, 'Special and Differential Treatment of Developing Countries' in P. Macrory, A. Appleton and M. Plummer (eds), The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis (Springer-Verlag, New York, 2005), pp. 1523-1570 at p. 1539
15. S. Asante, Regionalism and Africa's Development: Expectations, Reality and Challenges (Macmillan, London, 1997), p. 126.
16. B. Ebe, 'Conclusion' in T. Mama, B. Ebe and F. Owoundi (eds), Les Economies Africaines Face a L'Europe de 1993 (Presse Universitaires de Cameroun, Yaoundé, 1992), pp. 203-216 at p. 206.
17. CIIR, Continental Shift: Europe's Policies Towards the South (Catholic Institute for International Relations, London, 1996), p. 19.
18. K. Philip, 'The European Economic Cooperation and the Establishment of Common Markets Among Developing Countries' in D. Wirmark (ed.) Europe and the Developing Countries (Friedrich Naumann Foundation, Stockholm, 1969), pp. 11-25 at p. 23.
19. See for instance, South Africa-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Multi-annual Indicative Programme for the Period 2003-2005' (South African CSP), p. 4
20. Mauritius-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and National Indicative Programme for the Period 2002-2007' (Mauritian CSP), p. 1.
21. D. Juul-Jorgensen, 'Enhancing Trade for Development' (March-April 2002) 191 ACP-EU Courier, p. 31.
22. Republic of Botswana-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme for the Period 2002-2007' (Botswana CSP), p. 12.
23. A. Linard, 'Bleak Outlook for Cotton: Africa Producers Point the Finger at Subsidies Granted by the North' (November 2002) 195 ACP-EU Courier, p. 19.
24. V. Kaczynski and D. Fluharty, 'European Policies in West Africa: Who Benefits from Fisheries Agreements?' (2002) 26 Marine Policy, pp. 75-93 at pp. 75-79
25. See also A. Linard, 'Greater Coherence for EU International Fisheries Agreements' (March-April 2003) 197 ACP-EU Courier, p. 16.
26. Mozambique-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme for the Period 2001-2007' (Mozambique CSP), p. 18.
27. Tanzania-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme for the Period 2001-2007' (Tanzania CSP), p. 12.
28. J. McMahon, 'Negotiating in a Time of Turbulent Transition: The Future of Lomé' (1999) 36 CML Rev., pp. 599-624 at p. 600.
29. For a critical discussion regarding NEPAD see S. Mathews, 'NEPAD, Realising the Renaissance?' (2003) 22 Politea, pp. 62-77 at p. 62.
30. F. Magloire, 'Le NEPAD et la bonne gouvernance: Première radiographie, premiers enseignements' in H. Hamouda et M. Kassé (eds), Le Nepad et les enjeux du développement en Afrique (Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris, 2002), pp. 153-168 at p. 158.
31. A. Adedeji, 'History and Prospects for Regional Integration in Africa.' Speech delivered at the Third Meeting of the African Development Forum, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2002.
32. See K. Arts, 'Political Dialogue Requires Investment: Meeting Human Rights Commitments of the Cotonou Agreement' (September-October 2003) 200 ACP-EU Courier, p. 22
33. A. Bradley, 'Political Dialogue: One of the Main Tools for Effective ACP-EC Cooperation' (September-October 2003) 200 ACP-EU Courier, p. 25.
34. 'African Optimism: The Hopeful Continent', The Economist, 7 January 2006, p. 40.
35. T. Blair, 'A Year of Huge Challenges', The Economist, 1 January 2005, p. 29.
36. S. Radelet and J. Weinstein, 'Liberia's Break with the Past', International Herald Tribune, 1 January 2006, p. 6
37. 'African Hope', The Wall Street Journal, 20 March 2006, p. 11.
38. O. Otunnu, 'The Secret Genocide' (June/August 2006) Foreign Policy, p. 45.
39. 'Failed States Index' (July/August 2005) Foreign Policy, p. 52.
40. A. Lake and F. Fukuyama, 'Darfur's Fleeting Moment', International Herald Tribune, 22 May 2006, p. 8
41. cf. A. Kuperman, 'Strategic Victimhood in Sudan', International Herald Tribune, 1 June, 2006, p. 6.
42. S. Tisdall, 'Battle for Hearts in Africa's Bandit Country', Guardian Weekly, 10-16 March 2006, p. 2.
43. J. Stearns, 'DR Congo: Another Modern Tragedy', European Voice, 16-22 March 2006, p. 17.
44. N. Yorongar, Tchad: Le Procès d'Idriss Déby - Témoignage à Charge (L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003), pp. 173-179.
45. 'Fear Roams the Streets of Abidjan', BBC News, 19 January 2006.
46. 'Tales from Mugabeland', The Wall Street Journal, 18 May 2006, p. 11.
47. 'Mauritania Officers "seize power"', BBC News, 4 August 2005.
48. 'Egyptian Opposition Leader Jailed', BBC News, 24 December 2005.
49. The Strategy, note 2 above at p. 34; P. Sutherland, 'Migration is not a one-way street', International Herald Tribune, 7 June 2006, p. 8
50. C. Powell, 'No country left behind' (January/February 2005) Foreign Policy, p. 32.
51. On the issue of brain drain, see 'Ranking the Rich', (May/June 2004) Foreign Policy, p. 52.
52. A. Wade, Un Destin pour l'Afrique (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1989), p. 158
53. L. Polgreen, 'A Doctor's Struggle Against a Tide of Death', International Herald Tribune, 30 May 2006, p. 2.
54. See for instance, D. Cronin, 'Sending Back Asylum-Seekers', European Voice, 18-23 May 2006, p. 6
55. B. McLean, 'Image-Conscious Canaries Fear Migrant Tide', International Herald Tribune, 1 June 2006, p. 3.
56. S. de Camara and S. Gomes, 'The Political Dimension of the New ACP-EU Partnership' (June-July 2000) 181 ACP-EU Courier, p. 11.
57. L. Kubosova, 'EU and Africa Join Forces to Tackle Immigration', , 10 July 2006, citing Commissioner Louis Michel who has stated that 'The only long-term and sustainable response to migration pressure is not putting more barriers in place, sending people back or selective migration policies. The true response is investing massively in development.'
58. M. Bortin, 'Making Money in Senegal off Human Cargo', International Herald Tribune, 30 May 2006, p. 2, reporting that fishermen have discovered trafficking in migrants as a new and more lucrative alternative to the waning local fishery industry.
59. A. Kasasa, 'Challenges Beyond Borders' (March 2006) 9 E-Courier, p. 3.
60. Interview with Director General of the International Organization for Migration Brunson Mckinley, 'The World Today', BBC World Service, 11 July 2006.
61. K. Degerfelt, 'Darfur Now' (July 2005) 2 E-Courier, p. 3.
62. A. Henriksson, 'Editorial' (December 2005) 6 E-Courier, p. 1.
63. CEC, 'Communication of the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Cooperation with ACP Countries Involved in Armed Conflicts', Brussels, COM(1999)240 final, 19 May 1999.
64. CEC, 'Communication from the Commission on Conflict Prevention', Brussels, COM(2001)211 final, 11 April 2001.
65. CEU, 'Review of the Common Position Concerning Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa', Brussels, 23 January 2002, PESC, p. 6.
66. CEU, 'Africa-Europe Dialogue (Follow-up to the Cairo Summit), Second Ministerial Meeting, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 28 November 2002, Brussels, 3 December 2002.
67. The RRM was established through Council Regulation 381/2001. It was established as a tool with which the EU can respond speedily to areas of need. See CEC, 'Information Note, The Rapid Reaction Mechanism Supporting the European Union's Policy Objectives in Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management', DG Relex, 2003.
68. EU Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management Unit, 'Civilian Instruments for EU Crisis Management', April 2003.
69. CEC, 'Communication from the Commission to the Council, The EU-Africa Dialogue', Brussels, COM(2003)316 final, 23 June 2003, p. 8.
70. P. Nielson, 'The EU-Africa Dialogue is Here to Stay: Support in Maputo for a Peace Support Operation Facility' (August 2003) 199 ACP-EU Courier, p. 6.
71. D. Cronin, 'EU to Agree on Using Aid Funds for Peacekeeping', European Voice, 6-12 April 2006, p. 6.
72. D. Cronin, 'Legal Spat Over Africa Aid Funds', European Voice, 2-8 February 2006, p. 2.
73. A. Henrikson, 'Editorial' (December 2005) 6 E-Courier, p. 2.
74. CEU, Council Regulation (EC) No. 2368/2002, Implementing the Kimberley Process Certification for the International Trade in Rough Diamonds, 20 December 2002; 'Rebuilding Failed States: From Chaos, Order', The Economist, 5 March 2005, p. 40.
75. In the case of Botswana, see Republic of Botswana-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme (2002-2007)', p. 13.
76. A. Higazi, A. Mackie, J. Nino-Perez and A. Sherriff, 'Regional Approaches to Conflict Prevention in Africa; European Support to African Processes' (2003) 4 InBrief, ECDPM (Maastricht), available at .
77. M. Ferreiran, T. Lehtinen and J. Haccius, 'The EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy: Opportunities for a More Effective EU Response to Crisis-Affected Countries in Africa' (2001) 22 ECDPM (Maastricht) Discussion Paper, available at .
78. J. Habermas, The Past as Future (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1994), pp. 22-23
79. O. Kabbaj, 'Keynote Address, Reform and Growth in Africa and the African Development Bank', Development Centre Seminar OECD, Paris, 2000, pp. 13-19 at pp. 16-17
80. A. Sen, 'Defining the Monterrey Consensus: Which Consensus?' (2002) 48 Commonwealth Secretariat Economic Paper (Commonwealth Secretariat, London), p. 16.
81. CIIR, Continental Shift: Europe's Polices Towards the South (Catholic Institute for International Relations, London, 1996), pp. 29-30
82. C. Ake, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa (CODESRIA, Dakar, 2003), p. 147.
83. It is noteworthy that Article 11(3), CPA, is an expression of the parties to limit trade in arms. See also, EuCoherence, 'External Relations-Weapons', available at . The NGO EuCoherence has been engaged on the issue of policy coherence in EU policies. In the posting it is stated: 'Arms not only disturb peace and security, the availability of arms is one of the reasons that developing countries have less money to invest in for example health care and education.'
84. M. Schroeder and R. Stohl, 'Small arms, large problem: The International threat of small arms proliferation and misuse', Arms Control Today, June 2006, p. 27.
85. Richard Gowon, 'Can the EU Create Africa's NATO?' in Espen Barth Eide (ed.), Global Europe Report I: Effective Multilateralism - Europe, Regional Security and a Revitalized UN (Foreign Policy Centre, London, 2004), p. 42.
86. See R. Youngs, 'The EU and Conflict in West Africa' (2006) 11 EFA Rev., pp. 333-352 at p. 345.
87. UNSC Resolution 1484, 30 May 2003. For more on the operation (Operation Artemis), see F. Faria, 'Crisis Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of the European Union' (April 2004) 51 ISS Occasional Papers, pp. 39-45.
88. M. Alliot-Marie, 'A Europe committed side by side with Africa', International Herald Tribune, 20 June 2006, p. 6.
89. Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in association with International Alert and Saferworld, 'Report on the Rome Seminar on EU Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa', Rome, 28-29 July 2003, p. 10
90. cf., O. Richard, Cavalier de la paix: Quelle politique européenne commune pour l'Afrique (interview with Aldo Ajello) (Editions Complexe, Bruxelles, 2003), p. 125.
91. G. Faber, 'Economic Partnership Agreements and Regional Integration Among ACP Countries' in Babarinde and Faber (eds), note 7 above at p. 86.
92. P. Lamy, 'EU and ACP Countries Negotiate Economic Partnership Agreements', interview by K. Karl, (July-August 2002) 193 ACP-EU Courier, p. 12.
93. CEU, 'European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World', 12 December, 2003, p. 13.
94. P. Kauffmann and B. Yvars, 'Introduction' in P. Kauffmann and B. Yvars (eds), Intégration européenne et régionalisme dans les pays en développement (l'Harmattan, Paris, 2004), pp. 7-14 at p. 7
95. M. Holland, 'The Challenge of the Cotonou Agreement: From Negotiation to Implementation' (2003) 1 Asia-Pacific Journal of EU Studies, pp. 57-82 at p. 62.
96. See C. Santos, 'European Union Support for Regional Initiatives in Developing Countries' in C. Cosgrove-Sacks (ed.), Europe, Diplomacy and Development: New Issues in EU Relations With Developing Countries (Palgrave, MacMillan, London, 2001), pp. 29-51 at p. 34.
97. st Century (Fourth Estate, London, 2005), p. 129.
98. H. Neun, 'HIV/AIDS: A Threat to the Agricultural Sector on Sub-Saharan Africa' (October 2005) 4 E-Courier, p. 4.
99. CEC, Communication from the Commission to the European Union Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and Committee of the Regions, 'The Social Dimension of Globalization - the EU's Policy Contributions on Extending the Benefits to all', Brussels, 18 May 2004, COM(2004) 383 final.
100. L. Francen, 'The Future in Question: The Impact of HIV/AIDS in Education and its Potentials for Confronting the Epidemic' (February 2006) 8 E-Courier, p. 5.
101. K. Arts, 'Political Dialogue in a "New Framework' in Babarinde and Faber (eds), note 7 above, pp. 155-175 at pp. 174-175.
102. F. Kempe, 'U.S. Military Leadership Focuses on Africa', The Wall Street Journal, 25 April 2006, p. 13.
103. 'Japanese Premier Arrives on Officials Visit', The Ethiopian Herald, 30 April 2006. Of late, Japan has been very active on the issue of poverty reduction in poor countries, the majority of which are in Africa. See J. Koizumi, 'A Joint Effort is Needed to Eradicate Poverty', Financial Times, 12 December 2005, p. 15.
104. H. de Burgh, China: Friend or Foe? (Icon Books, Cambridge, 2006), pp. 48-49
105. 'China's Hu Urges More Africa Ties', BBC World Service, 27 April 2006
106. D. Griffiths, 'Big Business Brings Beijing to Africa', BBC World Service, 23 April 2006
107. cf., K. Roth, 'China's Silence Boosts Tyrants', International Herald Tribune, 20 April 2006, p. 7
108. For rising Chinese influence generally, see J. Borger, E. MacAskill and J. Watts, 'Welcome to the Changing World Order', Guardian Weekly, 10-16 March 2006, p. 3.
109. See testimony of Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Snyder before Congress, 'Snyder sees signs of peace in the Democratic Republic of Congo conflict', 4 April 2003, available at .
110. S. Metz, 'Reform, Conflict and Security in Zaire', Strategic Studies Institute, 5 June 1996, available at
111. R. Lemarchand, 'U.S. Policy in the Great Lakes: A Critical Perspective' (1998) XXVI/1 A Journal of Opinion, pp. 41-46 at p. 41. For a discussion on US protection of its interest in the Great Lakes.
112. W. Reno, 'Mines, Money and the Problem of State-building in Congo' (1998) XXVI/1 A Journal of Opinion, pp. 14-17 at p. 16.
113. J. Delors, 'Je n'ai jamais cru au "grand soir"', 2262 J.A./l'Intelligent, 16-22 May 2004, p. 35.
114. N. Ware, 'Congo War and the Role of Coltan,' December 2001, available at .
115. F. Granell, 'The European Union and the New Partnership for Africa's Development' (September-October 2002) 194 ACP-EU Courier, p. 28.
116. J. Bhagwati, 'Development Aid: Getting It Right' (May 2005) 249 OECD Observer, p. 29.
117. See J. Mbaku, Institutions and Development in Africa (Africa World Press Inc., Trenton, New Jersey, 2004), p. 182
118. J. Bhagwati, 'A noble effort to end poverty, Bono, but it is misdirected', Financial Times, 28 February 2006, p. 13.
119. For regional strategy papers and emphasis on infrastructure, see, Southern African Development Community and the European Community, 'Regional Strategy Paper and Regional Indicative Programme, 2002-2007', p. 31
120. Région de l'Afrique de l'ouest-Communauté européenne, 'Document de stratégie de coopération régionale et programme indicatif régional, 2002-2007', p. 33
121. Region of Eastern and Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean-European Community, 'Regional Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme, 2002-2007', p. 26
122. Région de l'Afrique Centrale-Communauté Européenne, 'Document de stratégie de coopération régionale et programme indicatif régionale pour la période 2002-2007', p. 31
123. For country strategy papers and emphasis on transport infrastructure see, for instance, Republic of Tanzania-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme for the period 2001-2007', p. 28
124. Republic of Zambia-European Community, 'Country Strategy Paper and Indicative Programme for the Period 2001-2007', p. 26.
125. J-L. Terrier, 'Risks and Opportunities for Investors,' Reform and Growth in Africa and the African Development Bank, Development Centre Seminar OECD, 2000, pp. 73-75.
126. P. Tavares, 'Pourquoi tous ces coups d'Etats en Afrique?', Le monde diplomatique, January 2004, p. 17.