Fungi and fungal interactions in the Rhynie chert: A review of the evidence, with the description of Perexiflasca tayloriana gen. et sp. nov.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 373, Issue 1739, 2018, Pages

  Krings, Michael ^a,b   Harper, Carla J ^a,b   Taylor, Edith L ^b  

^a BAYERISCHE STAATSSAMMLUNG FÜR PALÄONTOLOGIE UND GEOLOGIE   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

Author keywords

Fungal fossil; Litter layer; Reproductive unit; Rhynie ecosystem; Structural preservation; Symbiosis

Indexed keywords

ALGA; ANIMAL; BIODEGRADATION; CYANOBACTERIUM; DEVONIAN; FOSSIL; FOSSIL RECORD; LITTER; MICROORGANISM; PLANT; PRESERVATION; REPRODUCTION; SYMBIOSIS;

ALGAE; ANIMALIA; BASIDIOMYCOTA; CYANOBACTERIA; EMBRYOPHYTA; FUNGI;

ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY; CHYTRIDIOMYCETES; CLASSIFICATION; CYTOLOGY; ECOSYSTEM; EMBRYOPHYTA; FOSSIL; FUNGUS; MICROBIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; SCOTLAND;

CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA; ECOSYSTEM; EMBRYOPHYTA; FOSSILS; FUNGI; SCOTLAND;

EID: 85038434582     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: 14712970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0500     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Kidston R, Lang WH. 1917 On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part I. Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani, Kidston and Lang. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 51, 761–784. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800008991)
2. Kidston R, Lang WH. 1920 On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part II. Additional notes on Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani, Kidston and Lang; with descriptions of Rhynia major, n.sp., and Hornea lignieri, n.g. n.sp. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 52, 603– 627. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800004488)
3. Kidston R, Lang WH. 1920 On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part III. Asteroxylon Mackiei, Kidston and Lang. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 52, 643– 680. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800004506)
4. Kidston R, Lang WH. 1921 On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part IV. Restorations of the vascular cryptogams, and discussion of their bearing on the general morphology of the Pteridophyta and the origin of the organisation of land-plants. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 52, 831–854. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800016033)
5. Kerp H, Hass H. 2004 De Onder-Devonische Rhynie Chert—het oudste en meest compleet bewaard gebleven terrestrische ecosysteem. Grondboor and Hamer 58, 33–50.
6. Trewin NH, Rice CM (eds) 2003 The rhynie hot spings system: geology, biota and mineralisation (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 94). Edinburgh, Scotland: The Royal Society of Edinburgh Scotland Foundation.
7. Dotzler N, Krings M, Kerp H, Hass H, Agerer R, Taylor TN. 2009 Mikroorganismen vor 400 Millionen Jahren, perfekt erhalten im unterdevonischen Rhynie Chert. Jahresber. 2008 Mitt. Freunde Bayer. Staatslg. Paläont. Hist. Geol. München e.V. 37, 49–62.
8. Taylor TN, Krings M, Taylor EL. 2015 Fossil fungi, 1st edn. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.
9. Kidston R, Lang WH. 1921 On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part V. The Thallophyta occurring in the peat-bed; the succession of the plants throughout a vertical section of the bed, and the conditions of accumulation and preservation of the deposit. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 52, 855–902. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800016045)
10. Croft WN, George EA. 1959 Blue-green algae from the middle Devonian of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire. Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Geol. 3, 341–353.
11. Krings M, Kerp H, Hass H, Taylor TN, Dotzler N. 2007 A filamentous cyanobacterium showing structured colonial growth from the Early Devonian Rhynie chert. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 146, 265–276. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2007.05. 002)
12. Krings M, Hass H, Kerp H, Taylor TN, Agerer R, Dotzler N. 2009 Endophytic cyanobacteria in a 400-million-yr-old land plant: a scenario for the origin of a symbiosis? Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 153, 62–69. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2008.06.006)
13. Taylor TN, Krings M. 2015 A colony-forming microorganism with probable affinities to the Chroococcales (Cyanobacteria) from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 219, 147–156. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo. 2015.04.003)
14. Edwards DS, Lyon AG. 1983 Algae from the Rhynie chert. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 86, 37–55. (doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1983.tb00716.x)
15. Dotzler N, Taylor TN, Krings M. 2007 A prasinophycean alga of the genus Cymatiosphaera in the Early Devonian Rhynie chert. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 147, 106–111. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo. 2007.07.001)
16. Kustatscher E, Dotzler N, Taylor TN, Krings M. 2014 Microalgae from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert: a new Cymatiosphaera. Zitteliana A 54, 165–169.
17. Kustatscher E, Dotzler N, Taylor TN, Krings M. 2014 Microfossils with suggested affinities to the Pyramimonadales (Pyramimonadophyceae, Chlorophyta) from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Acta Palaeobot. 54, 163–171. (doi:10.2478/acpa-2014-0010)
18. Krings M, Kerp H, Taylor EL, Harper CJ. 2017 Hagenococcus aggregatus nov. gen. et sp., a microscopic, colony-forming alga from the 410-million-yr-old Rhynie chert. Nova Hedwig. 105, 205–217.
19. Taylor TN, Krings M, Kerp H. 2006 Hassiella monospora gen. et sp. nov., a microfungus from the 400 million year old Rhynie chert. Mycol. Res. 110, 628–632. (doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2006.02.009)
20. Krings M, Taylor TN, Taylor EL, Kerp H, Hass H, Dotzler N, Harper CJ. 2012 Microfossils from the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert with suggested affinities to the peronosporomycetes. J. Paleontol. 86, 358–367. (doi:10.1666/11-087.1)
21. Krings M, Taylor TN, Dotzler N, Harper CJ. 2013 Frankbaronia velata nov. sp., a putative peronosporomycete oogonium containing multiple oospores from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Zitteliana A 53, 23–30.
22. Lyon AG. 1962 On the fragmentary remains of an organism referable to the Nematophytales, from the Rhynie chert, ‘Nematoplexus rhyniensis’ gen. et. sp. nov. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 65, 79–87. (doi:10.1017/S0080456800012382)
23. Weiss HJ. 2004 (updated 2010) Enigmatic little sphere. Rhynie chert News 1 See http://www. chertnews.de/Pachytheca.html.
24. Taylor TN, Remy W, Hass H. 1992 Fungi from the lower Devonian Rhynie chert: Chytridiomycetes. Am. J. Bot. 79, 1233–1241. (doi:10.2307/2445050)
25. Rice CM, Trewin NH, Anderson LI. 2002 Geological setting of the Early Devonian Rhynie cherts, Aberdeenshire, Scotland: an early terrestrial hot spring system. J. Geol. Soc. 159, 203–214. (doi:10. 1144/0016-764900-181)
26. Parry SF, Noble SR, Crowley QG, Wellman CH. 2011 A high precision U-Pb age constraint on the Rhynie chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications. J. Geol. Soc. 168, 863–872. (doi:10. 1144/0016-76492010-043)
27. Channing A, Edwards D. 2009 Yellowstone hot spring environments and the palaeo-ecophysiology of Rhynie chert plants: towards a synthesis. Plant Ecol. Divers. 2, 111–143. (doi:10.1080/17550870903349359)
28. Channing A, Edwards D. 2009 Silicification of higher plants in geothermally influenced wetlands: yellowstone as a Lower Devonian Rhynie analog. Palaios 24, 505–521. (doi:10.2110/palo.2008.p08-131r)
29. Channing A, Edwards D. 2013 Wetland megabias: ecological and ecophysiological filtering dominates the fossil record of hot spring floras. Palaeontology 56, 523–556. (doi:10.1111/pala.12043)
30. Trewin NH, Fayers SR. 2016 Macro to micro aspects of the plant preservation in the Early Devonian Rhynie cherts, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Earth Environ. Sci. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 106, 67–80. (doi:10.1017/S1755691016000025)
31. Wellman CH. 2006 Spore assemblages from the Lower Devonian ‘Lower Old Red Sandstone’ deposits of the Rhynie outlier, Scotland. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. Earth Sci. 97, 167–211. (doi:10.1017/S0263593300001449)
32. Wellman CH, Kerp H, Hass H. 2006 Spores of the Rhynie chert plant Aglaophyton (Rhynia) major (Kidston and Lang) D.S. Edwards, 1986. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 142, 229–250. (doi:10.1016/j. revpalbo.2006.04.009)
33. 39Ar dating of hydrothermal activity, biota and gold mineralization in the Rhynie hot-spring system, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 555–569. (doi:10.1016/j.gca.2010.10.014)
34. Mark DF, Rice CM, Trewin NH. 2013 Discussion on ‘A high-precision U-Pb age constraint on the Rhynie Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications’. J. Geol. Soc. 170, 701–703. (doi:10. 1144/jgs2011-110)
35. Taylor TN, Remy W, Hass H, Kerp H. 1995 Fossil arbuscular mycorrhiza from the Early Devonian. Mycologia 87, 560–573. (doi:10.2307/3760776)
36. Thompson W, Rayner ADM. 1983 Extent development and functioning of mycelial cord systems in soil. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 81, 333–345. (doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(83)80085-0)
37. Cairney JWG. 1992 Translocation of solutes in ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic rhizomorphs. Mycol. Res. 96, 135–141. (doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80928-3)
38. Jennings DH. 1994 Translocation in mycelia. In The mycota, vol. 1. Growth, differentiation and sexuality (eds JGH Wessels, F Meinhardt), pp. 163–173. Berlin, Germany:Springer.
39. Tlalka M, Bebber DP, Darrah P, Watkinson SC. 2008 Mycelial networks: nutrient uptake, translocation, and role in ecosystems. In Ecology of saprotrophic basidiomycetes (eds L Boddy, J Frankland, P van West), pp. 43–62. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Academic Press.
40. Krings M, Taylor TN, Dotzler N, Harper CJ. 2016 Morphology and ontogenetic development of Zwergimyces vestitus, a fungal reproductive unit enveloped in a hyphal mantle from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 228, 47–56. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2016.01.005)
41. Sharma BD, Bohra DR, Harsh R. 1993 Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae association in Lower Devonian plants of the Rhynie chert. Phytomorphology 43, 105–110.
42. Dotzler N, Krings M, Taylor TN, Agerer R. 2006 Germination shields in Scutellospora (Glomeromycota: Diversisporales, Gigasporaceae) from the 400 million-year-old Rhynie chert. Mycol. Progr. 5, 178–184. (doi:10.1007/s11557-006-0511-z)
43. Souza T. 2015 Handbook of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London: Springer.
44. Dotzler N, Walker C, Krings M, Hass H, Kerp H, Taylor TN, Agerer R. 2009 Acaulosporoid glomeromycotan spores with a germination shield from the 400-million-year-old Rhynie chert. Mycol. Progr. 8, 9–18. (doi:10.1007/s11557-008-0573-1)
45. Krings M, Walker C, Harper CJ, Martin H, Sónyi S, Kustatscher E, Taylor TN. 2017 Unusual fungal reproductive units from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Zitteliana 89, 29–37.
46. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2013 Zwergimyces vestitus (Kidston et W.H. Lang) nov. comb., a fungal reproductive unit enveloped in a hyphal mantle from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 190, 15–19. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2012. 11.008)
47. Krings M, Taylor TN, Taylor EL, Kerp H, Dotzler N. 2014 First record of a fungal ‘sporocarp’ from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Palaeobiodiv. Palaeoenviron. 94, 221–227. (doi:10.1007/s12549-013-0135-7)
48. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2014 A mantled fungal reproductive unit from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert that demonstrates Carboniferous ‘sporocarp’ morphology and development. N. Jb. Geol. Paläontol., Abh. 273, 197–205. (doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2014/0423)
49. Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Miller CE, Cole GT. 1983 Studies of Carboniferous fungi. II. The structure and organization of Mycocarpon, Sporocarpon, Dubiocarpon and Coleocarpon (Ascomycotina). Am. J. Bot. 70, 1482–1498. (doi:10.2307/2443347)
50. Krings M, Taylor TN, Dotzler N. 2013 Fossil evidence of the zygomycetous fungi. Persoonia 30, 1–10. (doi:10.3767/003158513X664819)
51. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2015 Mantled fungal reproductive units in land plant tissue from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Bull. Geosci. 90, 1–6. (doi:10.3140/bull.geosci.1519)
52. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2015 A fungal reproductive unit from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert (Aberdeenshire, Scotland) that demonstrates an unusual hyphal investment pattern. Scot. J. Geol. 51, 131–139. (doi:10.1144/sjg2014-026)
53. Strullu-Derrien C, Strullu DG. 2007 Mycorrhization of fossil and living plants. C.R. Palevol 6, 483–494. (doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2007.09.006)
54. Remy W, Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H. 1994 Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91, 11 841–11 843. (doi:10.1073/pnas.91.25.11841)
55. Taylor TN, Kerp H, Hass H. 2005 Life history biology of early land plants: Deciphering the gametophyte phase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 5892–5897. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0501985102)
56. Remy W, Hass H. 1996 New information on gametophytes and sporophytes of Aglaophyton major and inferences about possible environmental adaptations. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 90, 175–193. (doi:10.1016/0034-6667(95)00082-8)
57. Harrier LA. 2001 The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: a molecular review of the fungal dimension. J. Exp. Bot. 52(Suppl. 1), 469–478. (doi:10.1093/jxb/52.suppl_1.469)
58. Helgason T, Fitter A. 2005 The ecology and evolution of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Mycologist 19, 96–101. (doi:10.1017/S0269-915X(05)00302-2)
59. Parniske M. 2008 Arbuscular mycorrhiza: the mother of plant root endosymbioses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 6, 763–775. (doi:10.1038/nrmicro1987)
60. Pirozynski KA, Malloch DW. 1975 The origin of land plants: a matter of mycotrophism. Biosystems 6, 153–164. (doi:10.1016/0303-2647(75)90023-4)
61. Bonfante P, Selosse MA. 2010 A glimpse into the past of land plants and of their mycorrhizal affairs: from fossils to evo-devo. New Phytol. 186, 267–270. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03196.x)
62. Brundrett MC. 2002 Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants. New Phytol. 154, 275–304. (doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00397.x)
63. Humphreys CP, Franks PJ, Rees M, Bidartondo MI, Leake JR, Beerling DJ. 2010 Mutualistic mycorrhiza-like symbiosis in the most ancient group of land plants. Nat. Commun. 1, 103. (doi:10.1038/ncomms1105)
64. Bidartondo MI, Read DJ, Trappe JM, Merckx V, Ligrone R, Duckett JG. 2011 The dawn of symbiosis between plants and fungi. Biol. Lett. 7, 574–577. (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1203)
65. Delaux PM et al. 2015 Algal ancestor of land plants was preadapted for symbiosis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 13 390–13 395. (doi:10.1073/pnas. 1515426112)
66. Weiblen GD, Treiber EL. 2015 Evolutionary origins and diversification of mutualism. In Mutualism (ed. JL Bronstein), pp. 37–56. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
67. Boullard B, Lemoigne Y. 1971 Les champignons endophytes du Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii K. et L. Étude morphologique et déductions sur leur biologie. Botaniste 54, 49–89.
68. Karatygin IV, Snigirevskaya NS, Demchenko KN. 2006 Species of the genus Glomites as plant mycobionts in Early Devonian ecosystems. Paleontol. J. 40, 572–579. (doi:10.1134/S0031030106050121)
69. Krings M, Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H, Dotzler N, Hermsen E.J. 2007 An alternative mode of early land plant colonization by putative endomycorrhizal fungi. Plant Signal. Behav. 2, 125–126. (doi:10. 4161/psb.2.2.3970)
70. Krings M, Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H, Dotzler N, Hermsen EJ. 2007 Fungal endophytes in a 400-million-yr-old land plant: infection pathways, spatial distribution, and host responses. New Phytol. 174, 648–657. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02008.x)
71. Strullu-Derrien C, Kenrick P, Pressel S, Duckett JG, Rioult JP, Strullu DG. 2014 Fungal associations in Horneophyton ligneri from the Rhynie chert (c. 407 million year old) closely resemble those in extant lower land plants: novel insights into ancestral plant –fungus symbioses. New Phytol. 203, 964–979. (doi:10.1111/nph.12805)
72. Rimington WR, Pressel S, Duckett JG, Bidartondo MI. 2015 Fungal associations of basal vascular plants: reopening a closed book? New Phytol. 205, 1394–1398. (doi:10.1111/nph.13221)
73. Rimington WR, Pressel S, Field KJ, Strullu-Derrien C, Duckett JG, Bidartondo MI. 2017 Reappraising the origin of mycorrhizas. In Molecular mycorrhizal symbioses (ed. F Martin), pp. 21–32. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
74. Strullu-Derrien C, Kenrick P, Selosse MA. 2017 Origins of the mycorrhizal symbioses. In Molecular mycorrhizal symbiosis, pp. 3–20. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
75. Harvey R, Lyon AG, Lewis PN. 1969 A fossil fungus from Rhynie chert. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 53, 155–156. (doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(69)80025-2)
76. Illman WI. 1984 Zoosporic fungal bodies in the spores of the Devonian fossil vascular plant, Horneophyton. Mycologia 76, 545–547. (doi:10. 2307/3793338)
77. Strullu-Derrien C, Wawrzyniak Z, Goral T, Kenrick P. 2015 Fungal colonization of the rooting system of the early land plant Asteroxylon mackiei from the 407-Myr-old Rhynie chert (Scotland, UK). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 179, 201–213. (doi:10.1111/boj. 12307)
78. Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H. 1999 The oldest fossil ascomycetes. Nature 399, 648. (doi:10.1038/21349)
79. Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H, Krings M, Hanlin RT. 2005 Perithecial ascomycetes from the 400 million year old Rhynie chert: An example of ancestral polymorphism. Mycologia 97, 269–285. (doi:10. 1080/15572536.2006.11832862)
80. Taylor JW, Berbee ML. 2006 Dating divergences in the Fungal tree of life: review and new analyses. Mycologia 98, 838–849. (doi:10.1080/15572536. 2006.11832614)
81. Lücking R, Huhndorf S, Pfister DH, Plata ER, Lumbsch HT. 2009 Fungi evolved right on track. Myologia 101, 810–822. (doi:10.3852/09-016)
82. Remy W, Taylor TN, Hass H. 1994 Early Devonian fungi: a blastocladalean fungus with sexual reproduction. Am. J. Bot. 81, 690–702. (doi:10. 2307/2445647)
83. Emerson R. 1941 An experimental study of the life cycles and taxonomy of Allomyces. Lloydia 4, 77–144.
84. Emerson R, Robertson JA. 1974 Two new members of the Blastocladiaceae. I. Taxonomy, with an evaluation of genera and interrelationships in the family. Am. J. Bot. 61, 303–317. (doi:10.2307/2441610)
85. Krings M, Taylor TN, Martin H. 2016 An enigmatic fossil fungus from the 410 Ma Rhynie chert that resembles Macrochytrium (Chytridiomycota) and Blastocladiella (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 108, 303–312. (doi:10.3852/15-224)
86. Hass H, Taylor TN, Remy W. 1994 Fungi from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert: mycoparasitism. Am. J. Bot. 81, 29–37. (doi:10.2307/2445559)
87. Krings M, Dotzler N, Longcore JE, Taylor TN. 2010 An unusual microfungus in a fungal spore from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Palaeontology 53, 753–759. (doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2010.00959.x)
88. Krings M, Taylor TN, Kerp H, Walker C. 2015 Deciphering interfungal relationships in the 410-million-yr-old Rhynie chert: Sporocarp formation in glomeromycotan spores. Geobios 48, 449–458. (doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2015.09.003)
89. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2014 Deciphering interfungal relationships in the 410-million-yr-old Rhynie chert: an intricate interaction between two mycelial fungi. Symbiosis 64, 53–61. (doi:10.1007/s13199-014-0302-2)
90. Harper CJ, Krings M, Dotzler N, Taylor EL, Taylor TN. 2017 Deciphering interfungal relationships in the 410-million-yr-old Rhynie chert: Morphology and development of vesicle-colonizing microfungi. Geobios 50, 9–22. (doi:10.1016/j.geobios. 2016.11.003)
91. Krings M, Taylor TN. 2014 An unusual fossil microfungus with suggested affinities to the Chytridiomycota from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Nova Hedwig. 99, 403–412. (doi:10.1127/0029-5035/2014/0205)
92. Krings M, Dotzler N, Taylor TN. 2009 Globicultrix nugax nov. gen. et nov. spec. (Chytridiomycota), an intrusive microfungus in fungal spores from the Rhynie chert. Zitteliana A 48/49, 165–170.
93. Taylor TN, Hass H, Remy W. 1992 Devonian fungi: Interactions with the green alga Palaeonitella. Mycologia 84, 901–910. (doi:10.2307/3760288)
94. Sparrow Jr. FK. 1960 Aquatic phycomycetes, 2nd edn. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
95. Karling JS. 1977 Chytridiomycetarum iconographia: An illustrated and brief descriptive guide to the chytridiomycetous genera with a supplement of the hyphochytridiomycetes. Monticello, NY: Lubrecht and Cramer.
96. Karling JS. 1928 Studies in the Chytridiales III. A parasitic chytrid causing cell hypertrophy in Chara. Am. J. Bot. 15, 485–496. (doi:10.2307/2435797)
97. Strullu-Derrien C, Goral T, Longcore JE, Olesen J, Kenrick P, Edgecombe GD. 2016 A new chytridiomycete fungus intermixed with crustacean resting eggs in a 407-Million-year-old continental freshwater environment. PLoS ONE 11, e0167301. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167301)
98. Habgood KS, Hass H, Kerp H. 2003 Evidence for an early terrestrial food web: coprolites from the Early Devonian Rhynie chert. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. Earth Sci. 94, 371–389. (doi:10.1017/S0263593300000754)
99. Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H. 1997 A cyanolichen from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert. Am. J. Bot. 84, 992–1004. (doi:10.2307/2446290)
100. Karatygin IV, Snigirevskaya NS, Vikulin SV. 2009 The most ancient terrestrial lichen Winfrenatia reticulata: a new find and new interpretation. Paleontol. J. 43, 107–114. (doi:10.1134/S0031030109010110)
101. Selden PA, Nudds JR. 2012 Evolution of fossil ecosystems, 2nd edn. London, UK: Manson Publishing Ltd.
102. Krings M, Dotzler N, Galtier J, Taylor TN. 2009 Microfungi from the upper Visean (Mississippian) of central France: Chytridiomycota and chytrid-like remains of uncertain affinity. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 156, 319–328. (doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo. 2009.03.011)
103. Kusano S. 1936 On the parasitism of Olpidium. Jap. J. Bot. 8, 155–187.
104. Sahtiyanci S. 1962 Studien über einige wurzelparasitäre Olpidiaceen. Arch. Mikrobiol. 41, 187–228. (doi:10.1007/BF00409505)
105. Karling JS. 1981 Predominantly holocarpic and eucarpic simple biflagellate phycomycetes, 2nd edn. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: J. Cramer.
106. Letcher PM, Powell MJ. 2012 A taxonomic summary and revision of Rhizophydium (Rhizophydiales, Chytridiomycota). Tuscaloosa, AL: University Printing, The University of Alabama.
107. Grosshart HP, Wurzbacher C, James TY, Kagami M. 2016 Discovery of dark matter fungi in aquatic ecosystems demands a reappraisal of the phylogeny and ecology of zoosporic fungi. Fung. Ecol. 19, 28–38. (doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2015.06.004)
108. Hanson AM. 1944 Three new saprophytic chytrids. Torreya 44, 30–33.
109. Pons D, Locquin MV. 1981 Mycokidstonia sphaerialoides Pons & Locquin, gen. et sp. nov., Ascomycètes fossile Dévonien. Cah. Micropaléontol. 1, 101–104.
110. Stockland JN, Siltonen J, Jonsson BG. 2012 Biodiversity in dead wood. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
111. Gleason FH, Karpov SA, Lilje O, Macarthur DJ, van Otgen FF, Sime-Ngando T. 2014 Zoosporic parasites of phytoplankton. In Freshwater fungi and fungal-like organisms (eds EBG Jones, KD Hyde, KL Pang), pp. 279– 304. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
112. Chen JJ, Cui BK, Zhou LW, Korhonen K, Dai YC. 2015 Phylogeny, divergence time estimation and biogeography of the genus Heterobasidion (Basidiomycota, Russulales). Fung. Div. 71, 185–200. (doi:10.1007/s13225-014-0317-2)
113. Karlsson M et al. 2015 Insights on the evolution of mycoparasitism from the genome of Clonostachys rosea. Genome Biol. Evol. 7, 465–480. (doi:10. 1093/gbe/evu292)
114. Tkacz A, Poole P. 2015 Role of root microbiota in plant productivity. J. Exp. Bot. 66, 2167–2175. (doi:10.1093/jxb/erv157)
115. LePage BA, Currah RS, Stockey RA. 1994 The fossil fungi of the Princeton chert. Int. J. Plant Sci. 155, 828–836. (doi:10.1086/297221)
116. Stockey RA, Rothwell GW, Addy HD, Currah RS. 2001 Mycorrhizal association of the extinct conifer Metasequoia milleri. Mycol. Res. 105, 202–205. (doi:10.1017/S0953756200003221)
117. Strullu-Derrien C, Kenrick P, Rioult JP, Strullu DG. 2011 Evidence of parasitic Oomycetes (Peronosporomycetes) infecting the stem cortex of the Carboniferous seed fern Lyginopteris oldhamia. Proc. R. Soc. B 278, 675–680. (doi:10.1098/rspb. 2010.1603)
118. Krings M, Taylor TN, Dotzler N, Persichini G. 2012 Fossil fungi with suggested affinities to the Endogonaceae from the Middle Triassic of Antarctica. Mycologia 104, 835–844. (doi:10.3852/11-384)
119. Krings M, White JF, Dotzler N, Harper CJ. 2013 A putative zygomycetous fungus with mantled zygosporangia and apposed gametangia from the Lower Coal Measures (Carboniferous) of Great Britain. Int. J. Plant Sci. 174, 269–277. (doi:10. 1086/668247)
120. Locatelli ER. 2014 The exceptional preservation of plant fossils: a review of taphonomic pathways and biases in the fossil record. In Reading and writing of the fossil record: preservational pathways to exceptional fossilization, vol. 20 (eds M Laflamme, JD Schiffbauer, SAF Darroch), pp. 237–258. Bolder, CO, USA: Paleontological Society Papers.
121. Taylor TN, Taylor EL. 2000. The Rhynie chert ecosystem: a model for understanding fungal interactions. In Microbial endophytes (eds CW Bacon, JF White), pp. 31–47. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
122. Berbee ML, Taylor JW. 2007 Rhynie chert: a window into a lost world of complex plant-fungus interactions. New Phytol. 174, 475-479. (doi:10. 1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02080.x)
123. Bonfante P, Genre A. 2008 Plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: an evolutionary-developmental perspective. Trends Plant Sci. 13, 492–498. (doi:10. 1016/j.tplants.2008.07.001)
124. Field KJ, Pressel S, Duckett JG, Rimington WR, Bidartondo MI. 2015 Symbiotic options for the conquest of land. Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 477–486. (doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.05.007)
125. Li DW, Castañeda-Ruiz RF, LaMondiaJ. 2016Evolutionof fungi and update on ethnomycology. In Biology of microfungi (ed. DW Li), pp. 237–266. New York: NY: Springer.
126. Krings M, Taylor TN, Harper CJ. 2017 Early fungi: Evidence from the fossil record. In The fungal community, its organization and role in the ecosystem (eds J Dighton, JF White), pp. 37–46, 4th edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Taylor and Francis.
127. Redman RS, Litvintseva A, Sheehan KB, Henson JM, Rodriguez RJ. 1999 Fungi from geothermal soils in Yellowstone National Park. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 5193–5197.
128. Henson J, Redman R, Rodriguez R, Stout R. 2005 Fungi in Yellowstone’s geothermal soils and plants. Yellowstone Sci. 13, 25–30.
129. Pan WZ, Huang XW, Wei KB, Zhang CM, Yang DM, Ding JM, Zhang KQ. 2010 Diversity of thermophilic fungi in Tengchong Rehai National Park revealed by ITS nucleotide sequence analyses. J. Microbiol. 48, 146–152. (doi:10.1007/s12275-010-9157-2)
130. Zhou WN, White Jr JF, Soares MA, Torres MS, Zhou ZP, Li HY. 2015 Diversity of fungi associated with plants growing in geothermal ecosystems and evaluation of their capacities to enhance thermotolerance of host plants. J. Plant Interact. 10, 305–314. (doi:10.1080/17429145.2015.1101495)
131. Green DG, Sadedin S. 2005 Interactions matter— complexity in landscapes and ecosystems. Ecol. Complex. 2, 117–130. (doi:10.1016/j.ecocom.2004.11.006)
132. Bairey E, Kelsic ED, Kishony R. 2016 High-order species interactions shape ecosystem diversity. Nat. Commun. 7, 12285. (doi:10.1038/ncomms12285)
133. Jordano P. 2016 Chasing ecological interactions. PLoS Biol. 14, e1002559. (doi:10.1371/journal.pbio. 1002559)
134. Beimforde C et al. 2014 Estimating the Phanerozoic history of the Ascomycota lineages: Combining fossil and molecular data. Mol. Phylogen. Evol. 78, 386–398. (doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.04.024)
135. Hibbett D, Blanchette R, Kenrick P, Mills B. 2016 Climate, decay, and the death of the coal forests. Curr. Biol. 26, R543–R576. (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016. 01.014)
136. Spatafora JW et al. 2016 A phylum-level phylogenetic classification of zygomycete fungi based on genome-scale data. Mycologia 108, 1028–1046. (doi:10.3852/16-042)
137. Powell CL, Trewin NH, Edwards D. 2000 Palaeoecology and plant succession in a borehole through the Rhynie cherts, Lower Old Red Sandstone, Scotland. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Pub. 180, 439–457. (doi:10. 1144/GSL.SP.2000.180.01.23)