Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A review of pathogenesis and pathophysiology

Respiratory Medicine

Volumn 132, Issue , 2017, Pages 170-177

  Kalikkot Thekkeveedu, Renjithkumar ^a   Guaman, Milenka Cuevas ^b   Shivanna, Binoy ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

^b BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia; Hyperoxia; Lung function; Pathogenesis; Pathophysiology; Ventilator induced lung injury

Indexed keywords

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; BIRTH WEIGHT; CHORIOAMNIONITIS; DYSBIOSIS; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GESTATIONAL AGE; HUMAN; HYPEROXIA; INCIDENCE; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LUNG DYSPLASIA; LUNG PARENCHYMA; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; MATERNAL SMOKING; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERINATAL PERIOD; PHENOTYPE; PRENATAL PERIOD; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY VASCULAR DISEASE; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEPSIS; EXTREMELY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; MALE; NEWBORN; NEWBORN SEPSIS; PERINATAL CARE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PREMATURITY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; SMOKING; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

BRONCHOPULMONARY DYSPLASIA; CHORIOAMNIONITIS; DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS, PATENT; FEMALE; FETAL GROWTH RETARDATION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; GESTATIONAL AGE; HUMANS; HYPEROXIA; HYPERTENSION, PREGNANCY-INDUCED; INCIDENCE; INFANT, EXTREMELY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; INFANT, EXTREMELY PREMATURE; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANT, PREMATURE; MALE; NEONATAL SEPSIS; PERINATAL CARE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING;

EID: 85032257311     PISSN: 09546111     EISSN: 15323064     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2017.10.014     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Jobe, A.H., Animal models, learning lessons to prevent and treat neonatal chronic lung disease. Front. Med., 2, 2015, 49.
2. Husain, A.N., Siddiqui, N.H., Stocker, J.T., Pathology of arrested acinar development in postsurfactant bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Hum. Pathol. 29:7 (Jul 1998), 710–717.
3. Coalson, J.J., Pathology of new bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Seminars Neonatol. SN. 8:1 (Feb 2003), 73–81.
4. Shennan, A.T., Dunn, M.S., Ohlsson, A., Lennox, K., Hoskins, E.M., Abnormal pulmonary outcomes in premature infants: prediction from oxygen requirement in the neonatal period. Pediatrics 82:4 (Oct 1988), 527–532.
5. Jobe, A.H., Bancalari, E., Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 163:7 (Jun 2001), 1723–1729.
6. Walsh, M.C., Wilson-Costello, D., Zadell, A., Newman, N., Fanaroff, A., Safety, reliability, and validity of a physiologic definition of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Perinatol. Official J. Calif. Perinat. Assoc. 23:6 (Sep 2003), 451–456.
7. Hines, D., Modi, N., Lee, S.K., et al. Scoping review shows wide variation in the definitions of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants and calls for a consensus. Acta Paediatr. (Oslo, Nor. 1992) 106:3 (Mar 2017), 366–374.
8. Poindexter, B.B., Feng, R., Schmidt, B., et al. Comparisons and limitations of current definitions of bronchopulmonary dysplasia for the prematurity and respiratory outcomes program. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 12:12 (Dec 2015), 1822–1830.
9. Abman, S.H., Collaco, J.M., Shepherd, E.G., et al. Interdisciplinary care of children with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 181 (Feb 2017), 12–28 e11.
10. McEvoy, C.T., Jain, L., Schmidt, B., Abman, S., Bancalari, E., Aschner, J.L., Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: NHLBI workshop on the primary prevention of chronic lung diseases. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 11:Suppl 3 (Apr 2014), S146–S153.
11. Stoll, B.J., Hansen, N.I., Bell, E.F., et al. Neonatal outcomes of extremely preterm infants from the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 126:3 (Sep 2010), 443–456.
12. Burri, P.H., Structural aspects of postnatal lung development - alveolar formation and growth. Biol. Neonate. 89:4 (2006), 313–322.
13. Baker, C.D., Alvira, C.M., Disrupted lung development and bronchopulmonary dysplasia: opportunities for lung repair and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 26:3 (Jun 2014), 306–314.
14. Madurga, A., Mizikova, I., Ruiz-Camp, J., Morty, R.E., Recent advances in late lung development and the pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 305:12 (Dec 2013), L893–L905.
15. Northway, W.H. Jr., Rosan, R.C., Porter, D.Y., Pulmonary disease following respirator therapy of hyaline-membrane disease. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. N. Engl. J. Med. 276:7 (Feb 16 1967), 357–368.
16. Bonikos, D.S., Bensch, K.G., Northway, W.H. Jr., Edwards, D.K., Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: the pulmonary pathologic sequel of necrotizing bronchiolitis and pulmonary fibrosis. Hum. Pathol. 7:6 (Nov 1976), 643–666.
17. Shaw, G.M., O'Brodovich, H.M., Progress in understanding the genetics of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Seminars Perinatol. 37:2 (Apr 2013), 85–93.
18. Bhandari, V., Bizzarro, M.J., Shetty, A., et al. Familial and genetic susceptibility to major neonatal morbidities in preterm twins. Pediatrics 117:6 (Jun 2006), 1901–1906.
19. Lavoie, P.M., Pham, C., Jang, K.L., Heritability of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, defined according to the consensus statement of the national institutes of health. Pediatrics 122:3 (Sep 2008), 479–485.
20. Ambalavanan, N., Cotten, C.M., Page, G.P., et al. Integrated genomic analyses in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 166:3 (Mar 2015), 531–537 e513.
21. Wang, H., St Julien, K.R., Stevenson, D.K., et al. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics 132:2 (Aug 2013), 290–297.
22. Bose, C., Van Marter, L.J., Laughon, M., et al. Fetal growth restriction and chronic lung disease among infants born before the 28th week of gestation. Pediatrics 124:3 (Sep 2009), e450–458.
23. Klinger, G., Sokolover, N., Boyko, V., Sirota, L., Lerner-Geva, L., Reichman, B., Perinatal risk factors for bronchopulmonary dysplasia in a national cohort of very-low-birthweight infants. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 208(2):115 (Feb 2013), e111–119.
24. Reiss, I., Landmann, E., Heckmann, M., Misselwitz, B., Gortner, L., Increased risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and increased mortality in very preterm infants being small for gestational age. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 269:1 (Nov 2003), 40–44.
25. Van Marter, L.J., Dammann, O., Allred, E.N., et al. Chorioamnionitis, mechanical ventilation, and postnatal sepsis as modulators of chronic lung disease in preterm infants. J. Pediatr. 140:2 (Feb 2002), 171–176.
26. Kramer, B.W., Kallapur, S., Newnham, J., Jobe, A.H., Prenatal inflammation and lung development. Seminars fetal & neonatal Med. 14:1 (Feb 2009), 2–7.
27. Watterberg, K.L., Demers, L.M., Scott, S.M., Murphy, S., Chorioamnionitis and early lung inflammation in infants in whom bronchopulmonary dysplasia develops. Pediatrics 97:2 (Feb 1996), 210–215.
28. Plakkal, N., Soraisham, A.S., Trevenen, C., Freiheit, E.A., Sauve, R., Histological chorioamnionitis and bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a retrospective cohort study. J. Perinatol. Official J. Calif. Perinat. Assoc. 33:6 (Jun 2013), 441–445.
29. Andrews, W.W., Goldenberg, R.L., Faye-Petersen, O., Cliver, S., Goepfert, A.R., Hauth, J.C., The Alabama Preterm Birth study: polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cell placental infiltrations, other markers of inflammation, and outcomes in 23- to 32-week preterm newborn infants. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 195:3 (Sep 2006), 803–808.
30. Hartling, L., Liang, Y., Lacaze-Masmonteil, T., Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal neonatal Ed. 97:1 (Jan 2012), F8–F17.
31. Liu, Z., Tang, Z., Li, J., Yang, Y., Effects of placental inflammation on neonatal outcome in preterm infants. Pediatr. Neonatol. 55:1 (Feb 2014), 35–40.
32. Redline, R.W., Inflammatory response in acute chorioamnionitis. Seminars fetal & neonatal Med. 17:1 (Feb 2012), 20–25.
33. Kim, S.Y., Choi, C.W., Jung, E., et al. Neonatal morbidities associated with histologic chorioamnionitis defined based on the site and extent of inflammation in very low birth weight infants. J. Korean Med. Sci. 30:10 (Oct 2015), 1476–1482.
34. Ballard, A.R., Mallett, L.H., Pruszynski, J.E., Cantey, J.B., Chorioamnionitis and subsequent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very-low-birth weight infants: a 25-year cohort. J. Perinatol. Official J. Calif. Perinat. Assoc. 36:12 (Dec 2016), 1045–1048.
35. Lahra, M.M., Beeby, P.J., Jeffery, H.E., Intrauterine inflammation, neonatal sepsis, and chronic lung disease: a 13-year hospital cohort study. Pediatrics 123:5 (May 2009), 1314–1319.
36. Collins, J.J., Kallapur, S.G., Knox, C.L., et al. Inflammation in fetal sheep from intra-amniotic injection of Ureaplasma parvum. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 299:6 (Dec 2010), L852–L860.
37. Viscardi, R.M., Atamas, S.P., Luzina, I.G., et al. Antenatal Ureaplasma urealyticum respiratory tract infection stimulates proinflammatory, profibrotic responses in the preterm baboon lung. Pediatr. Res. 60:2 (Aug 2006), 141–146.
38. Lowe, J., Watkins, W.J., Edwards, M.O., et al. Association between pulmonary ureaplasma colonization and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 33:7 (Jul 2014), 697–702.
39. Schelonka, R.L., Katz, B., Waites, K.B., Benjamin, D.K. Jr., Critical appraisal of the role of Ureaplasma in the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia with metaanalytic techniques. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 24:12 (Dec 2005), 1033–1039.
40. Bhatt, A.J., Pryhuber, G.S., Huyck, H., Watkins, R.H., Metlay, L.A., Maniscalco, W.M., Disrupted pulmonary vasculature and decreased vascular endothelial growth factor, Flt-1, and TIE-2 in human infants dying with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 164:10 Pt 1 (Nov 15 2001), 1971–1980.
41. Shibata, E., Rajakumar, A., Powers, R.W., et al. Soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 is increased in preeclampsia but not in normotensive pregnancies with small-for-gestational-age neonates: relationship to circulating placental growth factor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metabol. 90:8 (Aug 2005), 4895–4903.
42. Tang, J.R., Karumanchi, S.A., Seedorf, G., Markham, N., Abman, S.H., Excess soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 in amniotic fluid impairs lung growth in rats: linking preeclampsia with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. American journal of physiology. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 302:1 (Jan 01 2012), L36–L46.
43. Hansen, A.R., Barnes, C.M., Folkman, J., McElrath, T.F., Maternal preeclampsia predicts the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 156:4 (Apr 2010), 532–536.
44. Ozkan, H., Cetinkaya, M., Koksal, N., Increased incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants exposed to preeclampsia. J. Maternal-fetal neonatal Med. Official J. Eur. Assoc. Perinat. Med. Fed. Asia Ocean. Perinat. Soc. Int. Soc. Perinat. Obstet. 25:12 (Dec 2012), 2681–2685.
45. Henderson-Smart, D.J., Hutchinson, J.L., Donoghue, D.A., Evans, N.J., Simpson, J.M., Wright, I., Prenatal predictors of chronic lung disease in very preterm infants. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal neonatal Ed. 91:1 (Jan 2006), F40–F45.
46. O'Shea, J.E., Davis, P.G., Doyle, L.W., Maternal preeclampsia and risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants. Pediatr. Res. 71:2 (Feb 2012), 210–214.
47. Yen, T.A., Yang, H.I., Hsieh, W.S., et al. Preeclampsia and the risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in VLBW infants: a population based study. PLoS One., 8(9), 2013, e75168.
48. Torchin, H., Ancel, P.Y., Goffinet, F., et al. Placental complications and bronchopulmonary dysplasia: EPIPAGE-2 cohort study. Pediatrics, 137(3), Mar 2016, e20152163.
49. Wagijo, M.A., Sheikh, A., Duijts, L., Been, J.V., Reducing tobacco smoking and smoke exposure to prevent preterm birth and its complications. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 22 (Sep 21 2015), 3–10.
50. Antonucci, R., Contu, P., Porcella, A., Atzeni, C., Chiappe, S., Intrauterine smoke exposure: a new risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia?. J. Perinat. Med. 32:3 (2004), 272–277.
51. Isayama, T., Shah, P.S., Ye, X.Y., et al. Adverse impact of maternal cigarette smoking on preterm infants: a population-based cohort study. Am. J. Perinatol. 32:12 (Oct 2015), 1105–1111.
52. Spiegler, J., Jensen, R., Segerer, H., et al. Influence of smoking and alcohol during pregnancy on outcome of VLBW infants. Z. fur Geburtshilfe Neonatol. 217:6 (Dec 2013), 215–219.
53. Singh, S.P., Gundavarapu, S., Smith, K.R., et al. Gestational exposure of mice to secondhand cigarette smoke causes bronchopulmonary dysplasia blocked by the nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine. Environ. health Perspect. 121:8 (Aug 2013), 957–964.
54. Maritz, G.S., Dennis, H., Maternal nicotine exposure during gestation and lactation interferes with alveolar development in the neonatal lung. Reprod., Fertil. Dev. 10:3 (1998), 255–261.
55. Duijts, L., Reiss, I.K., Brusselle, G., de Jongste, J.C., Early origins of chronic obstructive lung diseases across the life course. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 29:12 (Dec 2014), 871–885.
56. Lambers, D.S., Clark, K.E., The maternal and fetal physiologic effects of nicotine. Seminars Perinatol. 20:2 (Apr 1996), 115–126.
57. Perrone, S., Tataranno, M.L., Buonocore, G., Oxidative stress and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Clin. Neonatol. 1:3 (Jul 2012), 109–114.
58. Kulkarni, A.C., Kuppusamy, P., Parinandi, N., Oxygen, the lead actor in the pathophysiologic drama: enactment of the trinity of normoxia, hypoxia, and hyperoxia in disease and therapy. Antioxidants redox Signal. 9:10 (Oct 2007), 1717–1730.
59. Maltepe, E., Saugstad, O.D., Oxygen in health and disease: regulation of oxygen homeostasis–clinical implications. Pediatr. Res. 65:3 (Mar 2009), 261–268.
60. Bhandari, V., Elias, J.A., Cytokines in tolerance to hyperoxia-induced injury in the developing and adult lung. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 41:1 (Jul 1 2006), 4–18.
61. Horowitz, S., Pathways to cell death in hyperoxia. Chest 116:1 Suppl (Jul 1999), 64S–67S.
62. Crapo, J.D., Morphologic changes in pulmonary oxygen toxicity. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 48 (1986), 721–731.
63. Fracica, P.J., Knapp, M.J., Piantadosi, C.A., et al. Responses of baboons to prolonged hyperoxia: physiology and qualitative pathology. J. Appl. Physiol. (Bethesda, Md. 1985) 71:6 (Dec 1991), 2352–2362.
64. Jobe, A.H., Hillman, N., Polglase, G., Kramer, B.W., Kallapur, S., Pillow, J., Injury and inflammation from resuscitation of the preterm infant. Neonatology 94:3 (2008), 190–196.
65. Vina, J., Vento, M., Garcia-Sala, F., et al. L-cysteine and glutathione metabolism are impaired in premature infants due to cystathionase deficiency. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61:5 (May 1995), 1067–1069.
66. Asikainen, T.M., White, C.W., Antioxidant defenses in the preterm lung: role for hypoxia-inducible factors in BPD?. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 203:2 (Mar 1 2005), 177–188.
67. Dreyfuss, D., Soler, P., Basset, G., Saumon, G., High inflation pressure pulmonary edema. Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 137:5 (May 1988), 1159–1164.
68. Hernandez, L.A., Peevy, K.J., Moise, A.A., Parker, J.C., Chest wall restriction limits high airway pressure-induced lung injury in young rabbits. J. Appl. Physiol. (Bethesda, Md. 1985). 66:5 (May 1989), 2364–2368.
69. Carlton, D.P., Cummings, J.J., Scheerer, R.G., Poulain, F.R., Bland, R.D., Lung overexpansion increases pulmonary microvascular protein permeability in young lambs. J. Appl. Physiol. (Bethesda, Md. 1985). 69:2 (Aug 1990), 577–583.
70. Bouhuys, A., Physiology and musical instruments. Nature 221:5187 (Mar 29 1969), 1199–1204.
71. Whitehead, T., Slutsky, A.S., The pulmonary physician in critical care * 7: ventilator induced lung injury. Thorax 57:7 (Jul 2002), 635–642.
72. Slutsky, A.S., Lung injury caused by mechanical ventilation. Chest 116:1 Suppl (Jul 1999), 9S–15S.
73. Mols, G., Priebe, H.J., Guttmann, J., Alveolar recruitment in acute lung injury. Br. J. Anaesth. 96:2 (Feb 2006), 156–166.
74. Bilek, A.M., Dee, K.C., Gaver, D.P. 3rd, Mechanisms of surface-tension-induced epithelial cell damage in a model of pulmonary airway reopening. J. Appl. Physiol. (Bethesda, Md. 1985) 94:2 (Feb 2003), 770–783.
75. Albert, R.K., The role of ventilation-induced surfactant dysfunction and atelectasis in causing acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 185:7 (Apr 01 2012), 702–708.
76. Mead, J., Takishima, T., Leith, D., Stress distribution in lungs: a model of pulmonary elasticity. J. Appl. Physiol. 28:5 (May 1970), 596–608.
77. Keszler, M., Sant'Anna, G., Mechanical ventilation and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Clin. Perinatol. 42:4 (Dec 2015), 781–796.
78. Tsuchida, S., Engelberts, D., Peltekova, V., et al. Atelectasis causes alveolar injury in nonatelectatic lung regions. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 174:3 (Aug 01 2006), 279–289.
79. Tremblay, L.N., Slutsky, A.S., Ventilator-induced injury: from barotrauma to biotrauma. Proc. Assoc. Am. Phys. 110:6 (Nov-Dec 1998), 482–488.
80. Slutsky, A.S., Ranieri, V.M., Ventilator-induced lung injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 369:22 (Nov 28 2013), 2126–2136.
81. Slutsky, A.S., Tremblay, L.N., Multiple system organ failure. Is mechanical ventilation a contributing factor?. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 157:6 Pt 1 (Jun 1998), 1721–1725.
82. Jobe, A.H., Ikegami, M., Lung development and function in preterm infants in the surfactant treatment era. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 62 (2000), 825–846.
83. Morley, C., Continuous distending pressure. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal neonatal Ed. 81:2 (Sep 1999), F152–F156.
84. Balany, J., Bhandari, V., Understanding the impact of infection, inflammation, and their persistence in the pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Front. Med., 2, 2015, 90.
85. Marshall, D.D., Kotelchuck, M., Young, T.E., Bose, C.L., Kruyer, L., O'Shea, T.M., Risk factors for chronic lung disease in the surfactant era: a North Carolina population-based study of very low birth weight infants. North Carolina Neonatologists Association. Pediatrics 104:6 (Dec 1999), 1345–1350.
86. Klinger, G., Levy, I., Sirota, L., Boyko, V., Lerner-Geva, L., Reichman, B., Outcome of early-onset sepsis in a national cohort of very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 125:4 (Apr 2010), e736–740.
87. Jensen, E.A., Schmidt, B., Epidemiology of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Birth Defects Res. Part A, Clin. Mol. Teratol. 100:3 (Mar 2014), 145–157.
88. Lakshminrusimha, S., The pulmonary circulation in neonatal respiratory failure. Clin. Perinatol. 39:3 (Sep 2012), 655–683.
89. Mielke, G., Steil, E., Breuer, J., Goelz, R., Circulatory changes following intrauterine closure of the ductus arteriosus in the human fetus and newborn. Prenat. Diagn. 18:2 (Feb 1998), 139–145.
90. Gewillig, M., Brown, S.C., De Catte, L., et al. Premature foetal closure of the arterial duct: clinical presentations and outcome. Eur. heart J. 30:12 (Jun 2009), 1530–1536.
91. Ishida, H., Kawazu, Y., Kayatani, F., Inamura, N., Prognostic factors of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus in utero: a systematic literature review. Cardiol. Young, Jun 20 2016, 1–5.
92. Hamrick, S.E., Hansmann, G., Patent ductus arteriosus of the preterm infant. Pediatrics 125:5 (May 2010), 1020–1030.
93. Gerhardt, T., Bancalari, E., Lung compliance in newborns with patent ductus arteriosus before and after surgical ligation. Biol. Neonate. 38:1–2 (1980), 96–105.
94. Varsila, E., Hallman, M., Venge, P., Andersson, S., Closure of patent ductus arteriosus decreases pulmonary myeloperoxidase in premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Biol. Neonate. 67:3 (1995), 167–171.
95. Slaughter, J.L., Reagan, P.B., Newman, T.B., Klebanoff, M.A., Comparative effectiveness of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug treatment vs No treatment for patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants. JAMA Pediatr., 171(3), Mar 06 2017, e164354.
96. Chock, V.Y., Punn, R., Oza, A., et al. Predictors of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or death in premature infants with a patent ductus arteriosus. Pediatr. Res. 75:4 (Apr 2014), 570–575.
97. Edstedt Bonamy, A.K., Gudmundsdottir, A., Maier, R.F., et al. Patent ductus arteriosus treatment in very preterm infants: a european population-based cohort study (EPICE) on variation and outcomes. Neonatology 111:4 (Jan 26 2017), 367–375.
98. Sung, S.I., Chang, Y.S., Chun, J.Y., et al. Mandatory closure versus nonintervention for patent ductus arteriosus in very preterm infants. J. Pediatr. 177 (Oct 2016), 66–71 e61.
99. Petersen, C., Round, J.L., Defining dysbiosis and its influence on host immunity and disease. Cell. Microbiol. 16:7 (Jul 2014), 1024–1033.
100. Hansen, R., Scott, K.P., Khan, S., et al. First-pass meconium samples from healthy term vaginally-delivered neonates: an analysis of the microbiota. PLoS One., 10(7), 2015, e0133320.
101. Jimenez, E., Fernandez, L., Marin, M.L., et al. Isolation of commensal bacteria from umbilical cord blood of healthy neonates born by cesarean section. Curr. Microbiol. 51:4 (Oct 2005), 270–274.
102. Lohmann, P., Luna, R.A., Hollister, E.B., et al. The airway microbiome of intubated premature infants: characteristics and changes that predict the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr. Res. 76:3 (Sep 2014), 294–301.
103. Lal, C.V., Travers, C., Aghai, Z.H., et al. The airway microbiome at birth. Sci. Rep., 6, Aug 04 2016, 31023.
104. Gallacher, D.J., Kotecha, S., Respiratory microbiome of new-born infants. Front. Pediatr., 4, 2016, 10.
105. Simpson, S.J., Hall, G.L., Wilson, A.C., Lung function following very preterm birth in the era of 'new' bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Respirol. Carlt. Vic. 20:4 (May 2015), 535–540.
106. Islam, J.Y., Keller, R.L., Aschner, J.L., Hartert, T.V., Moore, P.E., Understanding the short- and long-term respiratory outcomes of prematurity and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 192:2 (Jul 15 2015), 134–156.
107. Ahlfeld, S.K., Gao, Y., Conway, S.J., Tepper, R.S., Relationship of structural to functional impairment during alveolar-capillary membrane development. Am. J. Pathol. 185:4 (Apr 2015), 913–919.
108. May, C., Kennedy, C., Milner, A.D., Rafferty, G.F., Peacock, J.L., Greenough, A., Lung function abnormalities in infants developing bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Arch. Dis. Child. 96:11 (Nov 2011), 1014–1019.
109. Cazzato, S., Ridolfi, L., Bernardi, F., Faldella, G., Bertelli, L., Lung function outcome at school age in very low birth weight children. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 48:8 (Aug 2013), 830–837.
110. Bamat, N., Ghavam, S., Liu, Y., et al. Reliability of a noninvasive measure of V./Q. Mismatch for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 12:5 (May 2015), 727–733.
111. Thunqvist, P., Gustafsson, P., Norman, M., Wickman, M., Hallberg, J., Lung function at 6 and 18 months after preterm birth in relation to severity of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 50:10 (Oct 2015), 978–986.
112. Filippone, M., Sartor, M., Zacchello, F., Baraldi, E., Flow limitation in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia and respiratory function at school age. Lancet (London, Engl.) 361:9359 (Mar 01 2003), 753–754.
113. Robin, B., Kim, Y.J., Huth, J., et al. Pulmonary function in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 37:3 (Mar 2004), 236–242.
114. Keszler, M., Nassabeh-Montazami, S., Abubakar, K., Evolution of tidal volume requirement during the first 3 weeks of life in infants <800 g ventilated with Volume Guarantee. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal neonatal Ed. 94:4 (Jul 2009), F279–F282.
115. Balinotti, J.E., Chakr, V.C., Tiller, C., et al. Growth of lung parenchyma in infants and toddlers with chronic lung disease of infancy. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 181:10 (May 15 2010), 1093–1097.
116. Lum, S., Kirkby, J., Welsh, L., Marlow, N., Hennessy, E., Stocks, J., Nature and severity of lung function abnormalities in extremely pre-term children at 11 years of age. Eur. Respir. J. 37:5 (May 2011), 1199–1207.
117. Kumar, V.H., Ryan, R.M., Growth factors in the fetal and neonatal lung. Front. Biosci. a J. virtual Libr. 9 (Jan 01 2004), 464–480.
118. Thebaud, B., Abman, S.H., Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: where have all the vessels gone? Roles of angiogenic growth factors in chronic lung disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 175:10 (May 15 2007), 978–985.
119. Maniscalco, W.M., Watkins, R.H., Pryhuber, G.S., Bhatt, A., Shea, C., Huyck, H., Angiogenic factors and alveolar vasculature: development and alterations by injury in very premature baboons. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 282:4 (Apr 2002), L811–L823.
120. Cornfield, D.N., Developmental regulation of oxygen sensing and ion channels in the pulmonary vasculature. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 661 (2010), 201–220.
121. Vollsaeter, M., Roksund, O.D., Eide, G.E., Markestad, T., Halvorsen, T., Lung function after preterm birth: development from mid-childhood to adulthood. Thorax 68:8 (Aug 2013), 767–776.
122. Fawke, J., Lum, S., Kirkby, J., et al. Lung function and respiratory symptoms at 11 years in children born extremely preterm: the EPICure study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 182:2 (Jul 15 2010), 237–245.
123. Doull, I.J., Mok, Q., Tasker, R.C., Tracheobronchomalacia in preterm infants with chronic lung disease. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal neonatal Ed. 76:3 (May 1997), F203–F205.
124. Downing, G.J., Kilbride, H.W., Evaluation of airway complications in high-risk preterm infants: application of flexible fiberoptic airway endoscopy. Pediatric 95:4 (Apr 1995), 567–572.
125. Filbrun, A.G., Popova, A.P., Linn, M.J., McIntosh, N.A., Hershenson, M.B., Longitudinal measures of lung function in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 46:4 (Apr 2011), 369–375.
126. Plopper, C.G., Nishio, S.J., Schelegle, E.S., Tethering tracheobronchial airways within the lungs. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 167:1 (Jan 1 2003), 2–3.
127. Henschen, M., Stocks, J., Brookes, I., Frey, U., New aspects of airway mechanics in pre-term infants. Eur. Respir. J. 27:5 (May 2006), 913–920.
128. Vrijlandt, E.J., Boezen, H.M., Gerritsen, J., Stremmelaar, E.F., Duiverman, E.J., Respiratory health in prematurely born preschool children with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 150:3 (Mar 2007), 256–261.
129. Brostrom, E.B., Thunqvist, P., Adenfelt, G., Borling, E., Katz-Salamon, M., Obstructive lung disease in children with mild to severe BPD. Respir. Med. 104:3 (Mar 2010), 362–370.
130. Greenough, A., Chan, V., Hird, M.F., Positive end expiratory pressure in acute and chronic respiratory distress. Arch. Dis. Child. 67:3 (Mar 1992), 320–323.
131. Panitch, H.B., Allen, J.L., Alpert, B.E., Schidlow, D.V., Effects of CPAP on lung mechanics in infants with acquired tracheobronchomalacia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. care Med. 150:5 Pt 1 (Nov 1994), 1341–1346.