Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process

International Journal of Cognitive Therapy

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 192-205

  Ehring, Thomas ^a   Watkins, Edward R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85032038613     PISSN: 19371209     EISSN: 19371217     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1521/ijct.2008.1.3.192     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Abbott, M. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2004). Post–event rumination and negative self–appraisal in social phobia before and after treatment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 136–144.
2. Abramowitz, J. S., Whiteside, S., Kalsy, S. A., & Tolin, D. F. (2003). Thought control strate gies in obsessive–compulsive disorder: A replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 529–540.
3. Amir, N., Cashman, L., & Foa, E. B. (1997). Strategies of thought control in obsessive–compul sive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 775–777.
4. APA (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
5. Barnard, P. J., Watkins, E. R., Mackintosh, B., & Nimmo–Smith, I. (2007). Getting stuck in a mental rut: Some process and experiential attributes. Paper presented at the BABCP Annual Conference, Brighton, 13–15 September 2007.
6. Becker, E. S., Goodwin, R., Holting, C., Hoyer, J., & Margraf, J. (2003). Content of worry in the community: What do people with generalized anxiety disorder or other disorders worry about? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 688–691.
7. Behar, E., Zuellig, A. R., & Borkovec, T. D. (2005). Thought and imaginal activity during worry and trauma recall. Behavior Therapy, 36, 157–168.
8. Blagden, J. C., & Craske, M. G. (1996). Effects of active and passive rumination and distraction: A pilot replication with anxious mood. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 243–252.
9. Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O. M., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In R. G. Heimberg, C. L. Turk &D. S. Mennin(Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 77–108). New York, NY: Guilford.
10. Borkovec, T. D., & Inz, J. (1990). The nature of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: A predominance of thought activity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 153–158.
11. Borkovec, T. D., Robinson, E., Pruzinsky, T., & DePree, J. A. (1983). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 9–16.
12. Clark, D. A., & Claybourn, M. (1997). Process characteristics of worry and obsessive intrusive thoughts. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 1139–1141.
13. Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. G. Heimberg &D. A. Liebowitz (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford.
14. Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316–336.
15. Clohessy, S., & Ehlers, A. (1999). PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 251–265.
16. Eccleston, C., Crombez, G., Aldrich, S., & Stannard, C. (2001). Worry and chronic pain patients: A description and analysis of individual differences. European Journal of Pain, 5, 309–318.
17. Ehring, T. (2007). Development and validation of a content–independent measure of perseverative thinking. Paper presented at the V World Congress of Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, Barcelona, 13 – 15 July 2007.
18. Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., & Frank, S. (in press). The role of rumination and reduced concreteness in the maintenance of PTSD and depression following trauma. Cognitive Therapy and Research.
19. Ehring, T., Fuchs, N., & Klaesener, I. (submitted). The effects of experimentally induced rumination versus distraction on analogue posttraumatic stress symptoms.
20. Ehring, T., Szeimies, A.–K., & Schaffrick, C. (submitted). An experimental analogue study into the role of abstract thinking in trauma-related rumination. Paper presented at the V World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Barcelona, 11–14 July 2007.
21. Evans, C., Ehlers, A., Mezey, G., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Intrusive memories and ruminations related to violent crime among young offenders: Phenomenological characteristics. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 183–196.
22. Field, A. P., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2008). Shared and unique cognitive factors in social anxiety. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(3), 206–222.
23. Fink, P., Ornbol, E., Toft, T., Sparle, K. C., Frostholm, L., & Olesen, F. (2004). A new, empirically established hypochondriasis diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1680–1691.
24. Freeman, D., & Garety, P. A. (1999). Worry, worry processes and dimensions of delusions: An exploratory investigation of a role for anxiety processes in the maintenance of delusional distress. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 27, 47–62.
25. Freeston, M. H., Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (1996). Thoughts, images, worry, and anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 265–273
26. Freeston, M. H., Ladouceur, R., Rheaume, J., Letarte, H., Gagnon, F., & Thibodeau, N. (1994). Self–report of obsessions and worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 29–36.
27. Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 179–188.
28. Guastella, A. J., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). The impact of rumination on sleep quality following a stressful life event. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1151–1162.
29. Harvey, A. G. (2002). Trouble in bed: The role of pre–sleep worry and intrusions in the maintenance of insomnia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 161–177.
30. Harvey, A. G. (2003). Beliefs about the utility of presleep worry: An investigation of individuals with insomnia and good sleepers. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 403–414.
31. Harvey, A. G., Watkins, E., Mansell, W., & Shafran, R. (2004). Cognitive behavioural processes across psychological disorders. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
32. Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V.,&Follette, V. M. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168.
33. Johnson, S. L., McKenzie, G., & McMurrich, S. (in press). Ruminative responses to negative and positive affect among students diagnosed with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research.
34. Joormann, J., Dkane, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination? Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases. Behavior Therapy, 37, 269–280.
35. Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.
36. Kashdan, T. B., & Roberts, J. E. (2007). Social anxiety, depressive symptoms, and post–event rumination: Affective consequences and social contextual influences. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 284–301.
37. Kuehner, C., & Weber, I. (1999). Responses to depression in unipolar depressed patients: An investigation of Nolen–Hoeksema’s response styles theory. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1323–1333.
38. Langlois, F., Freeston, M. H., & Ladouceur, R. (2000a). Differences and similarities between obsessive intrusive thoughts and worry in a non–clinical population: Study 1. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 157–173.
39. Langlois, F., Freeston, M. H., & Ladouceur, R. (2000b). Differences and similarities between obsessive intrusive thoughts and worry in a non–clinical population: Study 2. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 175–189.
40. Lyubomirsky, S., & Tkach, C. (2004). The consequences of dysphoric rumination. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 21–41). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
41. Mansell, W. (2005). Control theory and psychopathology: An integrative approach. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 78, 141–178.
42. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Towards a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 306–326). New York: Guilford.
43. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Ruminative thoughts (pp. 1–47). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. McLaughlin, K. A., Borkovec, T. D., &Sibrava, N. J. (2007). The effects of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity. Behavior Therapy, 38, 23–38.
45. Michael, T., Halligan, S. L., Clark, D. M., &Ehlers, A. (2007). Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 307–317.
46. Morrison, A. P., & Wells, A. (2007). Relationships between worry, psychotic experiences and emotional distress in patients with schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses and comparisons with anxious and non–patient groups. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1593–1600.
47. Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R. A. (2002). Dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of motor vehicle accident survivors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 363–368.
48. Nelson, J., & Harvey, A. G. (2002). The differential functions of imagery and verbal thought in insomnia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 665–669.
49. Nelson, J., & Harvey, A. G. (2003). An exploration of pre–sleep cognitive activity in insomnia: imagery and verbal thought. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 271–288.
50. Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511.
51. Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2004). The response styles theory. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 107–123). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
52. Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Harrell, Z. A. (2002). Rumination, depression, and alcohol use: Tests of gender differences. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 391–403.
53. Nolen–Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92–104.
54. Nolen–Hoeksema, S., Stice, E., Wade, E., & Bohon, C. (2007). Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 198–207.
55. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (1999). Process and meta–cognitive dimensions of depressive and anxious thoughts and relationships with emotional intensity. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6, 156–162.
56. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2003). An empirical test of a clinical metacognitive model of rumination and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 261–273.
57. Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The control of perception. New Caanan: Benchmark Publications.
58. Sassaroli, S., Bertelli, S., Decoppi, M., Crosina, M., Milos, G., & Ruggiero, G. M. (2005). Worry and eating disorders: A psychopathological association. Eating Behaviors, 6, 301–307.
59. Scott, V. B. J., & McIntosh, W. D. (1999). The development of a trait measure of ruminative thought. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 1045–1056.
60. Segerstrom, S. C., Stanton, A. L., Alden, L. E., & Shortridge, B. E. (2003). A multidimensional structure for repetitive thought: What’s on your mind, and how, and how much? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 909–921.
61. Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination: Repetitive thought as a concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.
62. Siddique, H. I., LaSalle–Ricci, V., Glass, C. R., Arnkoff, D. B., & Diaz, R. J. (2006). Worry, optimism, and expectations as predictors of anxiety and performance in the first year of law school. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 667–676.
63. Siegle, G. J., Moore, P. M., & Thase, M. E. (2004). Rumination: One construct, many features in healthy individuals, depressed individuals, and individuals with lupus. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 645–668.
64. Smith, J. M., Grandin, L. D., Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to depression and axis II personality dysfunction. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 609–621.
65. Spasojevic, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2001). Rumination as a common mechanism relating depressive risk factors to depression. Emotion, 1, 25–37.
66. Speckens, A. E. M., Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Ruths, F. A., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Intrusive memories and rumination in patients with post–traumatic stress disorder: A phenomenological comparison. Memory, 15, 249 – 257.
67. Startup, H., Freeman, D., & Garety, P. A. (2007). Persecutory delusions and catastrophic worry in psychosis: Developing the understanding of delusion distress and persistence. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 523–537.
68. Stöber, J. (1998). Worry, problem elaboration and suppression of imagery: The role of concreteness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 751–756.
69. Stöber, J., & Borkovec, T. D. (2002). Reduced concreteness of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: Findings from a therapy study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 89–96.
70. Stöber, J., Tepperwien, S., & Staak, M. (2002). Worrying leads to reduced concreteness of problem elaborations: Evidence for the avoidance theory of worry. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 13, 217–227.
71. Sullivan, M. J. L., Bishop, S. R., & Pivik, J. (1995). The Pain Catastrophizing Scale: Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 7, 524–532.
72. Thomas, J., & Bentall, R. P. (2002). Hypomanic traits and response styles to depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 309–313.
73. Thomas, J., Knowles, R., Tai, S., & Bentall, R. P. (2007). Response styles to depressed mood in bipolar affective disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 100, 249–252.
74. Thomsen, D. K. (2006). The association between rumination and negative affect: A review. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 1216–1235.
75. Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self–consciousness and the five–factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284–304.
76. Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259.
77. Van Rijsoort, S., Emmelkamp, P., & Vervaeke, G. (2001). Assessment of worry and OCD: How are they related? Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 247–258.
78. Verplanken, B. (2006). Beyond frequency: Habit as mental construct. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 639–656.
79. Wahl, K. (2007). Differences and similarities between obsessive thoughts and ruminative thoughts in obsessive compulsive and depressed patients. Paper presented at the V World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Barcelona, 11 – 14 July 2007.
80. Watkins, E. (2004a). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self–focus during emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1037–1052.
81. Watkins, E. (2004b). Appraisals and strategies associated with rumination and worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 679–694.
82. Watkins, E. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 163–206.
83. Watkins, E., & Baracaia, S. (2001). Why do people ruminate in dysphoric moods? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 723–734
84. Watkins, E., & Moulds, M. (2005a). Distinct modes of ruminative self–focus: Impact of abstract versus concrete rumination on problem solving in depression. Emotion, 5, 319–328.
85. Watkins, E., & Moulds, M. (2005b). Positive beliefs about rumination in depression – a replication and extension. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 73–82.
86. Watkins, E., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). Reduced concreteness of rumination in depression: A pilot study. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1386–1395.
87. Watkins, E., Moulds, M., & Mackintosh, B. (2005). Comparisons between rumination and worry in a non–clinical population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1577–1585.
88. Watkins, E., Scott, J., Wingrove, J., Rimes, K., Bathurst, N., Steiner, H., et al. (2007). Rumination–focused cognitive behaviour therapy for residual depression: A case series. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2144–2154.
89. Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2001). Rumination and overgeneral memory in depression: effects of self–focus and analytic thinking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 353–357.
90. Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive self–focus in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 1–8.
91. Wells, A. (1995). Meta–cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 301–320.
92. Wells, A., & Carter, K. (1999). Preliminary tests of a cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 585–594.
93. Wells, A., & Carter, K. (2001). Further tests of a cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder: Metacognitions and worry in GAD, panic disorder, social phobia, depression, and nonpatients. Behavior Therapy, 32, 85–102.
94. Wells, A., & Morrison, A. P. (1994). Qualitative dimensions of normal worry and normal obsessions: a comparative study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 867–870.
95. Wells, A., & Papageorgiou, C. (1995). Worry and the incubation of intrusive images following stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 579–583.