Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence

American Psychologist

Volumn 55, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 122-136

  Baltes, Paul B ^a   Staudinger, Ursula M ^a,b  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (Germany)

^b DRESDEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; AWARENESS; EGO DEVELOPMENT; GERMANY; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; MOTIVATION; PROBLEM SOLVING; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIALIZATION;

ADULT; AWARENESS; BERLIN; HUMANS; INTELLIGENCE; MOTIVATION; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; PROBLEM SOLVING; SOCIAL VALUES; SOCIALIZATION;

EID: 85025635449     PISSN: 0003066X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Agazzi, E. (Ed.). (1991). Science et sagesse: Entretiens de l'Académie Internationale de Philosophie des Sciences, 1990 [Science and wisdom: Proceedings of the International Academy of the Philosophy of Science]. Freiburg, Germany: Universitätsverlag Freiburg.
2. Alexander, C. N., & Langer, E. J. (Eds.). (1990). Higher stages of human development. New York: Oxford University Press.
3. Anderson, J. R. (1987). Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem solutions. Psychological Review, 94, 192-210.
4. Arlin, P. K. (1993). Wisdom and expertise in teaching: An integration of perspectives. Learning and Individual Differences, 5, 341-349.
5. Assmann, A. (1994). Wholesome knowledge: Concepts of wisdom in a historical and cross-cultural perspective. In D. L. Featherman, R. M. Lerner, & M. Perlmutter (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 187-224). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6. Baltes, M. M., & Carstensen, L. L. (1996). The process of successful ageing. Ageing and Society, 16, 397-422.
7. Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611-626.
8. Baltes, P. B. (1993). The aging mind: Potential and limits. Gerontologist, 33, 580-594.
9. Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366-380.
10. Baltes, P. B. (1999). Wisdom: The orchestration of mind and virtue. Manuscript in preparation, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin.
11. Baltes, P. B., Dittmann-Kohli, F., & Dixon, R. A. (1984). New perspectives on the development of intelligence in adulthood: Toward a dual-process conception and a model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & J. O. G. Brim (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 6, pp. 33-76). New York: Academic Press.
12. Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. (1999). SOC-related knowledge about lifespan development: It's in the proverbs. Unpublished manuscript, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin.
13. Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). The psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 87-120). New York: Cambridge University Press.
14. Baltes, P. B., Smith, J., & Staudinger, U. M. (1992). Wisdom and successful aging. In T. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 39, pp. 123-167). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
15. Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1993). The search for a psychology of wisdom. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 75-80.
16. Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Wisdom. In H. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of mental health (Vol. 3, pp. 699-706). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
17. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471-507.
18. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., Maercker, A., & Smith, J. (1995). People nominated as wise: A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge. Psychology and Aging, 10, 155-166.
19. Bandura, A. (1982). The psychology of chance encounters and life paths. American Psychologist, 37, 747-755.
20. Baron, J. (1988). Thinking and deciding. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
21. Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
22. Birren, J. E., & Fisher, L. M. (1990). The elements of wisdom: Overview and integration. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 317-332). New York: Cambridge University Press.
23. Blanchard-Fields, F., & Hess, T. M. (Eds.). (1996). Perspectives on cognitive change in adulthood and aging. New York: McGraw-Hill.
24. Bloom, B. (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York: Ballantine.
25. Bratman, M. E. (1987). Intention, plans and practical reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
26. Carstensen, L. L. (1995). Evidence for a life-span theory of socioemotional selectivity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 151-156.
27. Clayton, V. P., & Birren, J. E. (1980). The development of wisdom across the life span: A reexamination of an ancient topic. In P. B. Baltes & J. O. G. Brim (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 103-135). New York: Academic Press.
28. Cole, M. (1996). Interacting minds in a life-span perspective: A cultural/ historical approach to culture and cognitive development. In P. B. Baltes & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition (pp. 59-87). New York: Cambridge University Press.
29. Cook, A. (1993). Canons and wisdom. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
30. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1990). The psychology of wisdom: An evolutionary interpretation. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 25-51). New York: Cambridge University Press.
31. Dawes, R. M. (1988). Rational choice in an uncertain world. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
32. Dittmann-Kohli, F., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Toward a neofunctionalist conception of adult intellectual development: Wisdom as a prototypical case of intellectual growth. In C. Alexander & E. Langer (Eds.), Higher stages of human development: Perspectives on adult growth (pp. 54-78). New York: Oxford University Press.
33. Dixon, R. A., & Baltes, P. B. (1986). Toward life-span research on the functions and pragmatics of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & R. K. Wagner (Eds.), Practical intelligence: Nature and origins of competence in the everyday world (pp. 203-234). New York: Cambridge University Press.
34. Dörner, D. (1983). Heuristics and cognition in complex systems. In R. Groner, M. Groner, & W. F. Bischof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 89-107). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
35. Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
36. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37. Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International University Press.
38. Fletcher, G. J. O. (-1995). The scientific credibility of folk psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). The orchestration of selection, optimization, and compensation: An action-theoretical conceptualization of a theory of developmental regulation. In W. J. Perrig & A. Grob (Eds.), Control of human behavior, mental processes and consciousness. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
40. Gigerenzer, G. (1996). Rationality: Why social context matters. In P. B. Baltes & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition (pp. 317-346). New York: Cambridge University Press.
41. Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P., & ABC Research Group. (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.
42. Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life. Boston: Blackwell.
43. Hall, G. S. (1922). Senescence: The last half of life. New York: Appleton.
44. Haselager, W. F. G. (1997). Cognitive science and folk psychology: The right frame of mind. London, UK: Sage.
45. Hatano, G. (1988). Social and motivational bases for mathematical understanding. In G. B. Saxe & M. Gearhart (Eds.), Children's mathematics (pp. 55-70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
46. Holliday, S. G., & Chandler, M. J. (1986). Wisdom: Explorations in adult competence. In J. A. Meacham (Ed.), Contributions to human development (Vol. 17, pp. 1-96). Basel, Switzerland: Karger.
47. Holyoak, K. J., & Spellman, B. A. (1993). Thinking. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 265-315.
48. Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (Eds.). (1982). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
49. Kekes, J. (1995). Moral wisdom and good lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
50. Kitchener, K. S., & Brenner, H. G. (1990). Wisdom and reflective judgement: Knowing in the face of uncertainty. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 212-229). New York: Cambridge University Press.
51. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1990). Wisdom as integrated thought: Historical and developmental perspectives. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 52-83). New York: Cambridge University Press.
52. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1995). Psyche and eros: Mind and gender in the life course. New York: Cambridge University Press.
53. Lehrer, K., Lum, B. J., Slichta, B. A., & Smith, N. D. (Eds.). (1996). Knowledge, teaching and wisdom. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
54. Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). Intellectual functioning in old and very old age: Cross-sectional results from the Berlin Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, 12, 410-432.
55. Maercker, A., Böhmig-Krumhaar, S. A., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Existentielle Konfrontation als Zugang zu weisheitsbezogenem Wissen und Urteilen: Eine Untersuchung von Weisheitsnominierten [Existential confrontation as access to wisdom-related knowledge and judgment: A study of wisdom nominees]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 30, 2-12.
56. Marsiske, M., Lang, F. R., Baltes, M. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1995). Selective optimization with compensation: Life-span perspectives on successful human development. In R. A. Dixon & L. Bäckman (Eds.), Compensation for psychological deficits and declines: Managing losses and promoting gains (pp. 35-79). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
57. Maxwell, N. (1984). From knowledge to wisdom. New York: Basil Blackwell.
58. McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (Eds.). (1998). Generativity and adult development: How and why we care for the next generation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
59. Mieder, W. (1993). Proverbs are never out of season: Popular wisdom in the modern age. New York: Oxford University Press.
60. Nichols, R. (1996). Maxims, "practical wisdom," and the language of action. Political Theory, 24, 687-705.
61. Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
62. Nozick, R. (1993). The nature of rationality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
63. Oelmüller, W. (1989). Philosophie und Weisheit [Philosophy and wisdom]. Paderborn, Germany: Schöningh.
64. Orwoll, L., & Perlmutter, M. (1990). The study of wise persons: Integrating a personality perspective. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 160-177). New York: Cambridge University Press.
65. Pasupathi, M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Wisdom. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
66. Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). The emergence of wisdom-related knowledge and judgment during adolescence. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Human Development.
67. Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741-754.
68. Rice, E. F., Jr. (1958). The renaissance idea of wisdom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
69. Riegel, K. F. (1973). Dialectical operations: The final period of cognitive development. Human Development, 16, 346-370.
70. Robinson, D. N. (1990). Wisdom through the ages. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 13-24). New York: Cambridge University Press.
71. Rorty, R. (1998). Truth and progress: Philosophical papers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
72. Rudolph, K. (1987). Wisdom. In M. Eliade (Ed.), Encyclopedia of religion: Wisdom (Vol. 15, pp. 393-401). New York: Macmillan.
73. Schaie, K. W. (1996). Adult intellectual development: The Seattle longitudinal study. New York: Cambridge University Press.
74. Shweder, R. A. (1991). Thinking through cultures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
75. Simon, H. A. (1983). Reasoning in human affairs. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
76. Smith, J. (1996). Planning about life: A social-interactive and life-span perspective. In P. B. Baltes & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition (pp. 242-275). New York: Cambridge University Press.
77. Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). A study of wisdom-related knowledge: Age/cohort differences in responses to life planning problems. Developmental Psychology, 26, 494-505.
78. Smith, J., Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Occupational settings facilitating wisdom-related knowledge: The sample case of clinical psychologists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 989-999.
79. Sowarka, D. (1989). Weisheit und weise Personen: Common-Sense-Konzepte älterer Menschen [Wisdom and wise persons: Common-sense views by elderly people]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 21, 87-109.
80. Staudinger, U. M. (1996). Wisdom and the social-interactive foundation of the mind. In P. B. Baltes & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition (pp. 276-315). New York: Cambridge University Press.
81. Staudinger, U. M. (1999a). Older and wiser? Integrating results on the relationship between age and wisdom-related performance. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23, 641-664.
82. Staudinger, U. M. (1999b). Social cognition and a psychological approach to an art of life. In F. Blanchard-Fields & B. T. Hess (Eds.), Social cognition, adult development, and aging (pp. 343-375). New York: Academic Press.
83. Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Psychology of wisdom. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 143-152). New York: Macmillan.
84. Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1996a). Interactive minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 746-762.
85. Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1996b). Weisheit als Gegenstand psychologischer Forschung [Wisdom as a topic of psychological research]. Psychologische Rundschau, 47, 57-77.
86. Staudinger, U. M., Lopez, D., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1200-1214.
87. Staudinger, U. M., Maciel, A. G., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1998). What predicts wisdom-related performance? A first look at personality, intelligence, and facilitative experiential contexts. European Journal of Personality, 12, 1-17.
88. Staudinger, U. M., Raykov, T.. Böhmig-Krumhaar, S., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). How general are domain-specific judgmental strategies? The sample case of wisdom-related performance. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Human Development.
89. Staudinger, U. M., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1992). Wisdom-related knowledge in a life review task: Age differences and the role of professional specialization. Psychology and Aging, 7, 271-281.
90. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607-627.
91. Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Intelligence, wisdom, and creativity: Three is better than one. Educational Psychologist, 21, 175-190.
92. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1990). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
93. Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Styles of thinking. In P. B. Baltes & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Interactive minds: Life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition (pp. 347-365). New York: Cambridge University Press.
94. Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2, 347-365.
95. Stich, S. P. (Ed.). (1990). The fragmentation of reason: Preface to a pragmatic theory of cognitive evaluation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
96. Taranto, M. A. (1989). Facets of wisdom: A theoretical synthesis. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 29, 1-21.
97. Welsch, W. (1995). Vernunft: Die zeitgenössische Vernunftkritik und das Konzept der transversalen Vernunft [Practical reason: A modern critique of reason and the concept of transversal reasoning]. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Suhrkamp.