Disrupting the continuities among residential schools, the sixties scoop, and child welfare: An analysis of colonial and neocolonial discourses

International Indigenous Policy Journal

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2016, Pages

  McKenzie, Holly A ^a   Varcoe, Colleen ^a   Browne, Annette J ^a   Day, Linda ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b Aboriginal Mother Centre Society   (Canada)

Author keywords

Aboriginal; Canada; Child welfare; First nations; Indigenous; Residential schools; Sixties scoop

Indexed keywords

EID: 85025472486     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19165781     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.18584/iipj.2016.7.2.4     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. (2013). Aboriginal income disparity in Canada. Retrieved from https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/
2. Anderson, M. C., & Robertson, C. L. (2011). Seeing red: A history of Natives in Canadian newspapers. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press
3. Armitage, A. (1995). Comparing the policy of Aboriginal assimilation: Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Vancouver, B.C.: UBC Press
4. Auditor General of Canada. (2008). First Nations child and family services program. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada report of the Auditor General of Canada to the House of Commons. Retrieved from http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/parl_oag_201106_04_e_35372.html
5. Auditor General of Canada. (2011). Programs for First Nations reserves. Status report of the Auditor General of Canada to the House of Commons. Retrieved from http://www.oagbvg. gc.ca/internet/English/parl_oag_201106_04_e_35372.html
6. Badgely, C. (1991). Adoption of Native children in Canada: A policy analysis and research report. In H. Altstein & R. J. Simon (Eds.), Intercountry adoption: A multinational perspective (pp. 55-74). New York: Praeger Publishers
7. Blackstock, C. (2007). Residential schools: Did they really close or just morph into child welfare? Indigenous Law Journal, 6(1), 71-78
8. Blackstock, C., Trocmé, N., & Bennett, M. (2004). Child maltreatment investigations among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal families in Canada. Violence against women, 10, 901-916. doi:10.1177/1077801204266312
9. Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2011). The impact of stressors on second generation Indian residential school survivors. Transcultural Psychiatry, 48(4), 367-391. doi:10.1177/1363461511410240
10. Bracken, D. C., Deane, L., & Morrissette, L. (2009). Desistance and social marginalization: The case of Canadian Aboriginal offenders. Theoretical Criminology, 13(1), 61-78. doi:10.1177/1362480608100173
11. Browne, A. J. (2005). Discourses influencing nurses' perceptions of First Nations patients. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37(4), 62-87
12. Browne, A. J. (2007). Clinical encounters between nurses and First Nations women in a Western Canadian hospital. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 2165-2176. doi:10.1177/1362480608100173
13. Browne, A. J., & Fiske, J. A. (2001). First Nations women's encounters with mainstream health care services. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 23(2), 126-147. doi:10.1177/019394590102300203
14. Browne, A. J., & Smye, V. (2002). A post-colonial analysis of healthcare discourses addressing Aboriginal women. Nurse Researcher: The International Journal of Research Methodology in Nursing and Health Care, 9(3), 28-41. doi:10.7748/nr2002.04.9.3.28.c6187
15. Browne, A. J., Smye, V. L., Rodney, P., Tang, S. Y., Mussell, B., & O'Neil, J. (2011). Access to primary care from the perspective of Aboriginal patients at an urban emergency department. Qualitative Health Research, 21(3), 333-348. doi:10.1177/1049732310385824
16. Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Ford-Gilboe, M., Wathen, N., & EQUIP Research Team. (2015). EQUIP Healthcare: An overview of a multi-component intervention to enhance equity-oriented care in primary health care settings. International Journal for Equity in Health, 14(152). doi:10.1186/s12939-015-0271-y
17. Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., & Fridkin, A. (2011). Addressing trauma, violence and pain: Research on health services for women at the intersections of history and economics. In O. Hankivsky (Ed.), Health inequities in Canada: Intersectional frameworks and practices (pp. 295-311). Vancouver: UBC Press
18. Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Wong, S., Littlejohn, D., Smye, V. L., Lavoie, J., . . . Rodney, P. (2012). Closing the health equity gap: Evidence-based strategies for primary healthcare organizations. International Journal for Equity in Health, 11(15). doi:10.1186/1475-9276-11-59
19. Carter, S. (1997). Capturing women: The manipulation of cultural imagery in Canada's Prairie West. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press
20. Caslor, M. D. (2011). The Métis DR/FE project evaluation. Retrieved from http://www.metisauthority.com/publications.php
21. Castellano, M. B., Archibald, L., & DeGagné, M. (2008). From truth to reconciliation: Transforming the legacy of residential schools. Retrieved from http://www.ahf.ca/publications/researchseries
22. Cedar Project, P., Mehrabadi, A., Paterson, K., Pearce, M., Patel, S., Craib, K. J., . . . Spittal, P. M. (2008). Gender differences in HIV and hepatitis C related vulnerabilities among Aboriginal young people who use street drugs in two Canadian cities. Women Health, 48(3), 235-260. doi:10.1080/03630240802463186
23. Chartrand, L. N., Logan, T. E., & Daniels, J. D. (2006). Métis history and experience and residential schools in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/metiseweb.pdf
24. Commission of Inquiry into the Circumstances Surrounding the Death of Phoenix Sinclair (Manitoba), & Hughes, T. (2013). The legacy of Phoenix Sinclair: Acheiving the best for all our children. Retrieved from http://www.phoenixsinclairinquiry.ca/rulings/ps_volume1.pdf
25. Davin, N. F. (1879). Report on industrial schools for Indians and halfbreeds Retrieved from http://archive.org/details/cihm_03651
26. de Leeuw, S., Greenwood, M., & Cameron, E. (2010). Deviant constructions: How governments preserve colonial narratives of addictions and poor mental health to intervene into the lives of Indigenous children and families in Canada. International Journal of Mental Health and Addictions, 8, 282-295. doi:10.1007/s11469-009-9225-1
27. Denison, J., Varcoe, C., & Browne, A. J. (2014). Aboriginal women's experiences of accessing health care when state apprehension of children is being threatened. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 70(5), 1105-1116. doi:10.1111/jan.12271
28. Dion Stout, M., & Kipling, G. (2003). Aboriginal people, resilience and the residential school legacy. Retrieved from http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/resilience.pdf
29. Douglas, M. (1992). Risk and blame. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203430866
30. Drake, B., Lee, S. M., & Jonson-Reid, M. (2009). Race and child maltreatment reporting: Are Blacks overrepresented? Child and Youth Services Review, 31(3), 309-316. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.08.004
31. Egan, B. (2012). Sharing the colonial burden: Treaty-making and reconciliation in Hul'qumi'num territory. The Canadian Geographer, 56(4), 389-418. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.2012.00414.x
32. Fast, E., & Collin-Vézina, D. (2010). Historical trauma, race-based trauma and resilience of Indigenous peoples: A literature review. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 5(1), 126-136
33. First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada. (2005a). Wen:de: We are coming to the light of day. Retrieved from http://cwrp.ca/publications/1752
34. First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada. (2005b). Wen:de: The journey continues: The national policy review on First Nations child and family services research project: Phase three. Retrieved from https://fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/docs/WendeJourneyContinues.pdf
35. First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada et. al. v. Attorney General of Canada (for the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada), No. T1340/7008. (2016). Canadian Human Rights Tribunal
36. First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC). (2012). First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) 2008/10: National report on adults, youth and children living in First Nations communities. Ottawa: Author
37. Fisher, R. (1971). Joseph Trutch and Indian land policy. B.C. Studies, 12, 3-33
38. Fiske, J. A. (1996). Gender and the paradox of residential education in Carrier society. In C. Miller & P. Chuchryk (Eds.), Women of the First Nations: Power, wisdom and strength (pp. 167-182). Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press
39. Fiske, J. A., & Browne, A. J. (2006). Aboriginal citizen, discredited medical subject: Paradoxical constructions of Aboriginal women's subjectivity in Canadian health care policies. Policy Sciences, 39(1), 91-111. doi:10.1007/s11077-006-9013-8
40. Fournier, S., & Crey, E. (1997). Stolen from our embrace: The abduction of First Nations children and the restoration of Aboriginal communities. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre
41. Furniss, E. (1995). Victims of benevolence: The dark legacy of the Williams Lake Residential School (2nd ed.). Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press
42. Furniss, E. (1999). The burden of history: Colonialism and the frontier myth in a rural Canadian community. Vancouver: UBC Press
43. Gerlach, A. (2012). A critical reflection on the concept of cultural safety. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(3), 151-158. doi:10.2182/cjot.2012.79.3.4
44. Gerlach, A., Browne, A. J., & Suto, M. (2014). A critical reframing of play in relation to Indigenous children in Canada. Journal of Occupational Science, 21(3), 243-258. doi:10.1080/14427591.2014.908818
45. Gerlach, A., Sullivan, T., Valavaara, K., & McNeil, C. (2014). Turning the gaze inward: Relational practices with Aboriginal peoples informed by cultural safety. Occupational Therapy Now, 16(1), 20-21
46. Government of British Columbia. (1996). Child, Family, and Community Services Act. Victoria, B.C
47. Hamilton, A. C., & Sinclair, C. M. (1991). Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba. Retrieved from http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volume.html
48. Haraway, D. (2004). A manifesto for cyborgs: Science, technology, and socialist feminism in the 1980s. The Haraway reader (pp. 7-46). New York: Routledge
49. Harding, T. (2013). Cultural safety: A vital element for nursing ethics. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 29(1), 4-11
50. Haskell, L., & Randall, M. (2009). Disrupted attachments: A social context complex trauma framework and the lives of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3), 48-99
51. Health Canada. (2010). Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey (CADUMS): Summary of Results for 2010. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/drugsdrogues/stat/_2010/summary-sommaire-eng.php-ref
52. Health Council of Canada. (2012). Empathy, dignity, and respect: Creating cultural safety for Aboriginal people in urban health care. Retrieved from http://www.healthcouncilcanada.ca/rpt_det_gen.php?id=442
53. Indian Act: An Act respecting Indians, S.C. 1920
54. Indian Act: An Act respecting Indians, S.C. 1951
55. Indian Act: An Act respecting Indians, S.C. 1970
56. Ing, N. R. (1991). The effects of residential schools on Native child-rearing practices. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 18, 65-118
57. Jacobs, K. W. J., & Gill, K. J. (2002). Substance abuse among urban Aboriginals: Association with a history of physical/sexual abuse. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 1(2), 19-39. doi:10.1300/J233v01n02_03
58. Johnston, P. (1983). Native children and the child welfare system. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Council on Social Development in association with James Lorimer & Company
59. Josewski, V. (2012). Analysing 'cultural safety' in mental health policy reform: Lessons from British Columbia, Canada. Critical Public Health, 22(2), 223-234. doi:10.1080/09581596.2011.616878
60. Kashaninia, Z., & B.C. Stats. (2011). Aboriginal population in British Columbia: A study of selected indicators for off-reserve and urban Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal populations. Retrieved from http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/
61. Kelm, M. E. (1998). Colonizing bodies: Aboriginal health and healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950. Vancouver: UBC Press
62. Kelm, M. E. (2010). Past into present: History and the making of knowledge about HIV/AIDS and Aboriginal people. In A. Herring & A. C. Swedlund (Eds.), Plagues and epidemics: Infected spaces past and present (pp. 193-212). New York: Bloomsbury Academic
63. Kimelman, E. C. (1985). No quiet place: Final report to the Honourable Muriel Smith, Minister of Community Services. Winnipeg: Manitoba Community Services
64. Kirmayer, L. J., Gone, J. P., & Moses, J. (2014). Rethinking historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 299-319
65. Kirmayer, L. J., & Valaskakis, G. G. (Eds.). (2009). Healing traditions: The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press
66. Landertinger, L. C. L. (2011). The biopolitics of Indigenous reproduction: Colonial discourse and the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the Canadian child welfre system. (Master's thesis) Queen's University, Kingston, ON
67. Lemstra, M., Rogers, M., Thompson, A., Moraros, J., & Buckingham, R. (2012). Risk indicators associated with injection drug use in the Aboriginal population. AIDS Care, 24(11), 1416-1424. doi:10.1080/09540121.2011.650678
68. Mandell, D., Carlson, J. C., Fine, M., & Blackstock, C. (2007). Aboriginal child welfare. In G. Cameron, N. Coady, & G. R. Adams (Eds.), Moving toward positive systems of child and family welfare: Current issues and future directions (pp. 115-160). Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press
69. Maxwell, K. (2014). Historicizing historical trauma theory: Troubling the trans-generational transmission paradigm. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 407-435. doi:10.1177/1363461514531317
70. McDonald, R. A. J., & Ladd, P. (2000). First Nations Child and Family Service Joint National Policy Review, final report. Retrieved from https://fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/docs/FNCFCS_JointPolicyReview_Fi nal_2000.pdf
71. McKenzie, B., & Hudson, P. (1985). Native children, child welfare, and the colonization of Native people. In K. Levitt (Ed.), The challenge of child welfare (pp. 125-141). Vancouver, B.C.: UBC Press
72. McKenzie, B., & Shangreaux, C. (2011). From child protection to community caring in First Nations Child and Family Services. In K. Kufeldt & B. McKenzie (Eds.), Child welfare: Connecting research, policy, and practice (pp. 323-338). Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press
73. Mehrabadi, A., Craib, K. J., Patterson, K., Adam, W., Moniruzzaman, A., Ward-Burkitt, B., . . . Cedar Project, P. (2008). The Cedar Project: A comparison of HIV-related vulnerabilities amongst young Aboriginal women surviving drug use and sex work in two Canadian cities. International Journal of Drug Policy, 19(2), 159-168. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.07.005
74. Miller, J. R. (1996). Shingwauk's vision: A history of Native residential schools. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press
75. Miller, J. R. (2003). Troubled legacy: A history of Native residential schools. Saskatchewan Law Review, 66, 357-381
76. Milloy, J. S. (1999). "A national crime": The Canadian government and the residential school system, 1879 to 1986. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press
77. Mitchel, T. L., & Maracle, D. T. (2005). Healing the generations: Post-traumatic stress and the health status of Aboriginal populations in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 2(1), 14-25
78. Mosby, I. (2013). Administering colonial science: Nutrition research and human biomedical experimentation in Aboriginal communities and residential schools, 1942-1952. Histoire sociale/Social history, 46(91), 145-172. doi:10.1353/his.2013.0015
79. Munroe, E. (1999). Common errors of reasoning in child protection work. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23(8), 745-758. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00053-8
80. Office of the Treaty Commissioner. (1998). Statement of treaty issues: Treaties as a bridge to the future. Retrieved from http://www.otc.ca/pdfs/OTC_STI.pdf
81. Papps, E., & Ramsden, I. (1996). Cultural safety in nursing: The New Zealand experience. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 8(5), 491-497. doi:10.1093/intqhc/8.5.491
82. Redden, J. (2014). The mediation of poverty: The news, new media, and politics. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
83. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP). (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Retrieved from http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/webarchives/20071115053257/http://www.aincinac. gc.ca/ch/rcap/sg/sgmm_e.html
84. Rutman, D., Callahan, M., & Swift, K. (2007). Risk Assessment and mothers who use substances: Contradictions in child welfare practice and policy. In N. Poole & L. Greaves (Eds.), Highs & lows: Canadian perspectives on women and substance use. Toronto, ON: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
85. Sinclair, R. (2007). Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(1), 65-82
86. Sinha, V., Ellenbogen, S., & Trocmé, N. (2013). Substantiating neglect of First Nations and non-Aboriginal children. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(12), 2080-2090. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.10.007
87. Sinha, V., & Kozlowki, A. (2013). The structure of Aboriginal child welfare in Canada. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(2), 1-21. doi:10.18584/iipj.2013.4.2.2
88. Sinha, V., Trocmé, N., Blackstock, C., MacLaurin, B., & Fallon, B. (2011). Understanding the overrepresentation of First Nations children in Canada's child welfare system. In K. Kufeldt B. McKenzie (Eds.), Child welfare: Connecting research, policy, and practice (pp. 307-322). Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press
89. Sinha, V., Trocmé, N., Fallon, B., & MacLaurin, B. (2013). Understanding the investigation-stage overrepresentation of First Nations children in the child welfare system: An analysis of the First Nations component of the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(10), 821-831. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.11.010
90. Skrypek, M., Otteson, C., & Owen, G. (2010). Signs of Safety in Minnesota: Early indicators of successful implementation in child protection agencies. Retrieved from http://www.wilder.org/
91. Smith, D., Varcoe, C., & Edwards, N. (2005). Turning around the intergenerational impact of residential schools on Aboriginal people: Implications for health policy and practice. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37(4), 38-60
92. Sparrow, B. (2013). Holistic care & youth. Retrieved from http://www.caan.ca/2013/10/09/holisticcare-youth/
93. Spittal, P. M., Craib, K. J., Teegee, M., Baylis, C., Christian, W. M., Moniruzzaman, A. K., . . . Cedar Project, P. (2007). The Cedar project: Prevalence and correlates of HIV infection among young Aboriginal people who use drugs in two Canadian cities. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 66(3), 226-240. doi:10.3402/ijch.v66i3.18259
94. Statistics Canada. (2008). 2006 Census: Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census. Retrieved from http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/subject-sujet/themetheme. action?pid=10000&lang=eng&more=0
95. Stoler, A. L. (1995). Race and the education of desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the colonial order of things. Durham: Duke University Press
96. Strega, S. (2009). Anti-oppressive approaches to assessment, risk assessment and file recording. In J. Carrière & S. Strega (Eds.), Walking this path together: Anti-racist and anti-oppressive child welfare practice (pp. 142-154). Black Point, NS: Fernwood Publishing
97. Swift, K. J., & Callahan, M. (2009). At risk: Social justice in child welfare and other human services. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press
98. Tait, C. (2009). Disruptions in nature, disruptions in society: Aboriginal peoples of Canada and the 'making' of fetal alcohol syndrome. In L. J. V. Kirmayer (Ed.), Healing traditions: The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. (pp. 196-218). Vancouver: UB.C. Press
99. Tait, C., Henry, R., & Walker, R. L. (2013). Child welfare: A social determinant of health for Canadian First Nations and Métis children. Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health, 11(1), 39-53
100. Tang, S. Y., & Browne, A. J. (2008). 'Race' matters: Racialization and egalitarian discourses involving Aboriginal people in the Canadian health care context. Ethnicity & Health, 13(2), 109-127. doi:10.1080/13557850701830307
101. Thielen-Wilson, L. (2014). Troubling the path to decolonization: Indian residential school case law, genocide, and settler illegitima. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 29(2), 181-197. doi:10.1353/jls.2014.0010
102. Thomas, D. A., Hummerstey, C., Rutman, D., Hume, S., & Van Bibber, M. (2009). The Aboriginal practice standards re-design project literature review. Retrieved from http://icwrn.uvic.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/literature-review.pdf
103. Tilbury, C. (2009). The over-representation of indigenous children in the Australian child welfare system. International journal of Social Welfare, 18(1), 57-64. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00577.x
104. Tilbury, C., & Thoburn, J. (2011). Disproportionate representation of Indigenous children in child welfare systems: International comparisons. In K. Kufeldt & B. McKenzie (Eds.), Child welfare: Connecting research, policy, and practice (pp. 293-305). Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press
105. Trocmé, N., Fallon, B., MacLaurin, B., Sinha, V., Black, T., Fast, E., . . . Holroyd, J. (2010). Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008 (CIS-2008): Major findings. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cm-vee/public-eng.php
106. Trocmé, N., Knoke, D., & Blackstock, C. (2004). Pathways to the overrepresentation of Aboriginal children in Canada's child welfare system. Social Service Review, 78(4), 577-600. doi:10.1086/424545
107. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Retrieved from www.trc.ca
108. Turnell, A. (2012). The Signs of Safety: Comprehensive briefing paper. Retrieved from www.signsofsafety.net
109. Varcoe, C., Brown, H., Calam, B., Harvey, T., & Tallio, M. (2013). Help bring back the celebration of life: A community-based participatory study of rural Aboriginal women's maternity experiences and outcomes. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 13, 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2393-13-26
110. Varcoe, C., & Browne, A. J. (2015). Culture and cultural safety: Beyond cultural inventories. In C. D. Gregory, L. Raymond-Seniuk, L. Patrick, & T. Stephen (Eds.), Fundamentals: Perspectives on the art and science of Canadian nursing. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
111. Waldram, J. B. (2004). Revenge of the windigo: The construction of the mind and mental health of North American Aboriginal peoples. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press
112. Waldram, J. B., Herring, D. A., & Young, T. K. (2006). Aboriginal health in Canada: Historical, cultural, and epidemiological perspectives (2 ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press
113. Walkem, A. (2015). Wrapping our ways around them: Aboriginal communities and the Child, Family and Community Service Act (CFCSA) guidebook. Retrieved from http://www.nntc.ca/docs/aboriginalcommunitiesandthecfcsaguidebook.pdf
114. Walmsley, C. (2005a). Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal child welfare organizations: The practitioner's perspective. Canadian Social Work/Travail social Canadien, 7(1), 95-110
115. Walmsley, C. (2005b). Protecting Aboriginal children. Vancouver, B.C.: UBC Press
116. Warren, P. (2008). Physician advocacy essential for Canada's First Nations. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 179(7), 728. doi:10.1503/cmaj.08129