Tuberculosis in migrants in low-incidence countries: Epidemiology and intervention entry points

International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease

Volumn 21, Issue 6, 2017, Pages 624-636

  Lonnroth, K ^a,b   Mor, Z ^c,d   Erkens, C ^e   Bruchfeld, J ^f,g   Nathavitharana, R R ^h,i   Van Der Werf, M J ^j   Lange, C ^b,k,l,m,n  

^a WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

^b KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

^c Research Branch   (Israel)

^d TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^e KNCV TUBERCULOSIS FOUNDATION   (Netherlands)

^f Unit of Infectious Diseases   (Sweden)

^g KAROLINSKA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

^h BETH ISRAEL DEACONESS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

ⁱ IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^j EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL ECDC   (Sweden)

^k RESEARCH CENTER BORSTEL   (Germany)

^l Clinical Tuberculosis Center   (Germany)

^m UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

ⁿ UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA   (Namibia)

more..

Author keywords

Asylum seekers; Epidemiology; Migration; Policy; Tuberculosis

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASYLUM SEEKER; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BCG VACCINATION; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE ELIMINATION; DISEASE NOTIFICATION; ENDEMIC DISEASE; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH INSURANCE; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; LATENT TUBERCULOSIS; MIGRANT; MIGRATION; POSTPRIMARY TUBERCULOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFUGEE; SCREENING; SOCIOECONOMICS; STIGMA; TRAVEL; TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL; GLOBAL HEALTH; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH SERVICE; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; MASS SCREENING; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; PROCEDURES; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

GLOBAL HEALTH; HEALTH POLICY; HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HEALTH SERVICES NEEDS AND DEMAND; HUMAN MIGRATION; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; LATENT TUBERCULOSIS; MASS SCREENING; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; REFUGEES; TRANSIENTS AND MIGRANTS; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 85018917857     PISSN: 10273719     EISSN: 18157920     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5588/ijtld.16.0845     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Uplekar M, Weil D, LÖnnroth K, et al WHO's new End TB Strategy Lancet 2015; 385 :1799-1801.
2. LÖnnroth K, Migliori G B, Raviglione M R, et al Towards tuberculosis elimination: an action framework for lowincidence countries Eur Respir J 2015 2015; 45: 928-952.
3. Dhavan P, Dias M, Creswell J, Weil D.An overview of tuberculosis and migration Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21: 000-000.
4. KÖdmÖn C, Zucs P, van der Werf M J.Migration-related tuberculosis: epidemiology and characteristics of tuberculosis cases originating outside the European Union and European Economic Area, 2007 to 2013 Euro Surveill 2016; 21 (12).
5. Hargreaves S, LÖnnroth K, Nellums L B, et al Multidrugresistant tuberculosis and migration to Europe Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23: 141-146.
6. Pareek M, Greenaway C, Noori T, Munoz J, Zenner D.The impact of migration on tuberculosis epidemiology and control in high-income countries: a review BMC Med 2016; 14: 48.
7. McBryde E S, Denholm J T.Risk of active tuberculosis in immigrants: effects of age, region of origin and time since arrival in a low-exposure setting Med J Aust 2012; 197: 458-461.
8. Marais B J, Outhred A, Zumla A.Engaging high and low burden countries in the 'TB end game' Int J Infect Dis 2016; 45: 100-102.
9. Allerberger F, Cambau E, Lange C.Joint efforts urgently needed at times of emerging tuberculosis drug resistance Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23: 129-130.
10. Fiebig L.Welttuberkulosetag 2016: Gemeinsam gegen Tuberkulose Epidemiologische Bull 2016; 10/11: 81-82.
11. Folh alsomyndigheten Tuberkulos Solna Stockholm: Folh als omyn digheten 2016 https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/folkhalsorapportering-statistik/statistikdatabaser-och-visualisering/sjukdomsstatistik/tuberkulos/Accessed February 2017
12. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Total international migrant stock New York, NY, USA: UN, 2015.
13. Frieden T R, Fujiwara P I, Washko R M, Hamburg M A.Tuberculosis in New York City-turning the tide N Eng J Med 1995; 333: 229-233.
14. Zumla A.The white plague returns to London-with a vengeance Lancet 2011; 377: 10-11.
15. Heuvelings C C, de Vries S G, Greve P F, et al Effectiveness of interventions aiming at identifying and managing tuberculosis among hard-to-reach populations: a systematic review Lancet Infect Dis 2017 [In press]
16. Wild V, Frick M, Jaramillo E, Shah S.Protecting human rights when addressing TB in migrants Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press].
17. Dara M, Sulis G, Centis R, et al Cross-border collaboration for improved TB prevention and care-policies, tools, and experiences Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press].
18. Zenner D, Hafezi H, Potter J, et al Effectiveness and costeffectiveness of screening migrants for active and latent TB Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press]
19. Kunst H, Burman M, Arnesen T M, et al Tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection screening in migrants in Europe Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press]
20. Douglas P, Posey D, Zenner D, et al Capacity strengthening through pre-migration TB screening programmes: IHRWG experiences Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press].
21. Shedrawy J, Oxlade O, Matteelli A, et al Methodological considerations for economic modelling of latent tuberculosis screening in immigrants to low TB incidence countries: a systematic review Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2017; 21 [In press].
22. World Health Organization Global tuberculosis report, 2016 WHO/HTM/TB2016.13 Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2016.
23. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Stocks and flows of immigrants, 2004-2014 Paris, France: OECD, 2016 http://www.oecd.org/els/mig/keystat.htm Accessed February 2017.
24. Yanni E A, Marano N, Stauffer W M, Barnett E D, Cano M, CetronMS Health status of visitors and temporary residents, United States Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1715-1720.
25. Abubakar I, Devakumar D, Madise N, et al UCL-Lancet Commission on Migration and Health Lancet 2016; 388: 1141-1142.
26. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre IDMC grid 2016-global report on internal displacement Geneva, Switzerland: IDMC, 2016 http://www.internal-displacement.org/globalreport2016/Accessed February 2017.
27. MacPherson DW, Gushulak B D, BaineWB, et al Population mobility, globalization, and antimicrobial drug resistance Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1727-1732.
28. Migration and health Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16: 867.
29. Khan M S, Osei-Kofi A, Omar A, et al Pathogens, prejudice, and politics: the role of the global health community in the European refugee crisis Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16: e173-e177.
30. Day K, White P.Choice or circumstance: the UK as the location of asylum applications by Bosnian and Somali refugees GeoJournal 2002; 56: 15-26.
31. Legomsky S H.Secondary refugee movements and the return of asylum seekers to third countries: the meaning of effective protection Int J Refugee Law 2003; 15: 567-677.
32. International Organization for Migration Key migration terms Geneva, Switzerland: IOM, 2017 http://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms Accessed February 2017.
33. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Paris, France: OECD, 2016 https://data.oecd.org/migration/foreign-born-population.htm Accessed February 2017.
34. United Nations Declaration on human rights of individuals who are not nationals of the country in which they live, 1985 New York, NY, USA: UN, 1985.
35. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Glossary on migration International migration definitions Paris, France: UNESCO, 2016 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-And-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/migrant/Accessed February 2017.
36. United Nations Statistics Division International migration New York, NY, USA: UN, 2017 http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sconcerns/migration/migrmethods.htm Accessed February 2017.
37. Lunt N, Smith R, ExworthyM, Green S, Horsfall D, Mannion R.Medical tourism: treatments, markets and health system implications: a scoping review Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011.
38. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Resettlement Geneva, Switzerland: UNHCR, 2017 http//www.unhcr.org/resettlement.html Accessed February 2017.
39. American Immigration Council How the United States immigration system works Washington DC, USA: AIC, 2016 www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/how-unitedstates-immigration-system-works Accessed February 2017
40. Poulain M.European migration statistics: definitions, data and challenges In: Barni M, Extra G, eds Mapping linguistic diversity in multicultural contexts Berlin, Germany & New York, NY, USA: Mouton de Gruyter, 2008: pp 43-66.
41. Tatem A J.Mapping population and pathogen movements Int Health 2014; 6: 5-11.
42. Sorichetta A, Bird T J, Ruktanonchai N W, et al Mapping internal connectivity through human migration in malaria endemic countries Sci Data 2016; 3: 160 066.
43. Wesolowski A, Buckee C O, Pindolia D K, et al The use of census migration data to approximate human movement patterns across temporal scales PLOS ONE 2013; 8: e52971.
44. Aldridge R W, Yates T A, Zenner D, White P J, Abubakar I, Hayward A C.Pre-entry screening programmes for tuberculosis in migrants to low-incidence countries: a systematic review and meta-Analysis Lancet Infect Dis 2014; 14: 1240-1249.
45. Scott C, Kirking H L, Jeffries C, Price S F, Pratt R; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tuberculosis trends-United States, 2014.MMWRMorb Mortal Wkly Rep 2015; 64: 265-269.
46. European Union, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control Tuberculosis surveillance and monitoring in Europe 2014 Luxembourg City, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2014.
47. Aldridge R W, Zenner D, White P J, et al Prevalence of and risk factors for active tuberculosis in migrants screened before entry to the UK: a population-based cross-sectional study Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16: 962-970.
48. Baker B J, Winston C A, Liu Y, France AM, Cain K P.Abrupt decline in tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States PLOS ONE 2016; 11: e0147353.
49. Khan K, Hirji M M, Miniota J, et al Domestic impact of tuberculosis screening among new immigrants to Ontario, Canada CMAJ 2015; 187: E473-E481.
50. Liu Y, Posey D L, Cetron M S, Painter J A.Effect of a culturebased screening algorithm on tuberculosis incidence in immigrants and refugees bound for the United States Ann Intern Med 2015; 162: 420-428.
51. Zenner D, Zumla A, Gill P, Cosford P, Abubakar I.Reversing the tide of the UK tuberculosis epidemic Lancet 2013; 382: 1311-1312.
52. Erkens C G, Slump E, Verhagen M, et al Monitoring latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis and management in the Netherlands Eur Respir J 2016; 47: 1492-1501.
53. Sandgren A, Schepisi M S, Sotgiu G, et al Tuberculosis transmission between foreign-And native-born populations in the EU/EEA: a systematic review Eur Respir J 2014; 43: 1159-1171.
54. Barniol J, Niemann S, Louis V R, et al Transmission dynamics of pulmonary tuberculosis between autochthonous and immigrant sub-populations BMC Infect Dis 2009; 9: 197.
55. Kamper-Jorgensen Z, Andersen A B, Kok-Jensen A, et al Migrant tuberculosis: the extent of transmission in a low burden country BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12: 60.
56. Goldblatt D, Rorman E, Chemtob D, et al Molecular epidemiology and mapping of tuberculosis in Israel: do migrants transmit the disease to locals? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2014; 18: 1085-1091.
57. Fenner L, Gagneux S, Helbling P, et al Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission in a country with low tuberculosis incidence: role of immigration and HIV infection J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 388-395.
58. Kulaga S, Behr M, Nguyen D, et al Diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in an immigrant population: evidence against a founder effect Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159: 507-513.
59. Borrell S, Espanol M, Orcau A, et al Tuberculosis transmission patterns among Spanish-born and foreign-born populations in the city of Barcelona Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16: 568-574.
60. Gil M, Moreno R, Marin M, Romeu M A, Gomila B, Gonzalez F.[Influence of immigration on tuberculosis transmission patterns in Castellon, Spain (2004-2007)] Gac Sanit 2011; 25: 122-126 [Spanish]
61. Inigo J, Garcia de Viedma D, et al Differential findings regarding molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis between two consecutive periods in the context of steady increase of immigration Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19: 292-297.
62. Dahle U R, Sandven P, Heldal E, Caugant D A.Continued low rates of transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Norway J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 2968-2973.
63. Kan B, Berggren I, Ghebremichael S, et al Extensive transmission of an isoniazid-resistant strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Sweden Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008; 2: 199-204.
64. Franzetti F, Codecasa L, Matteelli A, et al Genotyping analyses of tuberculosis transmission among immigrant residents in Italy Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16: 1149-1154.
65. Gutierrez M C, Vincent V, Aubert D, et al Molecular fingerprinting of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and risk factors for tuberculosis transmission in Paris, France, and surrounding area J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 486-492.
66. Diel R, R usch-Gerdes S, Niemann S.Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis among immigrants in Hamburg, Germany J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 2952-2960.
67. Cohen T, Murray M.Incident tuberculosis among recent US immigrants and exogenous reinfection Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 725-728.
68. Long R, Sutherland K, Kunimoto D, Cowie R, Manfreda J.The epidemiology of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in Alberta, Canada, 1989-1998: identification of high risk groups Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2002; 6: 615-621.
69. Farah M G, Meyer H E, Selmer R, Heldal E, Bjune G.Longterm risk of tuberculosis among immigrants in Norway Int J Epidemiol 2005; 34: 1005-1111.
70. Zenner D, Southern J, van Hest R, et al Active case finding for tuberculosis among high-risk groups in low-incidence countries Int J Tuberc Lung 2013; 17: 573-582.
71. Aldridge R W, Zenner D, White P J, et al Tuberculosis in migrants moving from high-incidence to low-incidence countries: a population-based cohort study of 519 955 migrants screened before entry to England, Wales, and Northern Ireland Lancet 2016; 388: 2510-2518.
72. Klinkenberg E, Manissero D, Semenza J C, Verver S.Migrant tuberculosis screening in the EU/EEA: yield, coverage and limitations Eur Respir J 2009; 34: 1180-1189.
73. Arshad S, Bavan L, Gajari K, Paget S N, Baussano I.Active screening at entry for tuberculosis among new immigrants: a systematic review and meta-Analysis Eur Respir J 2010; 35: 1336-1345.
74. McPherson M E, Kelly H, Patel M S, Leslie D.Persistent risk of tuberculosis in migrants a decade after arrival in Australia Med J Aust 2008; 188: 528-531.
75. Lillebaek T, Andersen A B, Dirksen A, Smith E, Skovgaard LT, Kok-Jensen A.Persistent high incidence of tuberculosis in immigrants in a low-incidence country Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8: 679-684.
76. Vos A M, Meima A, Verver S, et al High incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis persists a decade after immigration, The Netherlands Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 736-739.
77. Walter N D, Painter J, Parker M, et al Persistent latent tuberculosis reactivation risk in United States immigrants Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 189: 88-95.
78. Choudhury I W, West C R, Ormerod L P.The outcome of a cohort of tuberculin-positive predominantly South Asian new entrants aged 16-34 to the UK: Blackburn 1989-2001 J Public Health 2014; 36: 390-395.
79. Mulder C, van Deutekom H, Huisman E M, et al Role of the QuantiFERONw-TB Gold In-Tube assay in screening new immigrants for tuberculosis infection Eur Respir J 2012; 40: 1443-1449.
80. Campbell J R, Chen W, Johnston J, et al Latent tuberculosis infection screening in immigrants to low-incidence countries: a meta-Analysis Mol Diagn Ther 2015: 19: 107-117.
81. Kik S V,Mensen M, Beltman M, et al Risk of travelling to the country of origin for tuberculosis among immigrants living in a low-incidence country Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011; 15: 38-43.
82. McCarthy O R.Asian immigrant tuberculosis-the effect of visiting Asia Br J Dis Chest 1984; 78: 248-253.
83. Anderson S R, Maguire H, Carless J.Tuberculosis in London: a decade and a half of no decline Thorax 2007; 62: 162-167.
84. LÖnnroth K, Jaramillo E, Williams B G, Dye C, Raviglione M.Drivers of tuberculosis epidemics: the role of risk factors and social determinants Soc Sci Med 2009; 68: 2240-2246.
85. French C E, Antoine D, Gelb D, Jones J A, Gilbert R L,Watson J M.Tuberculosis in non-UK-born persons, England and Wales, 2001-2003 Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007; 11: 577-584.
86. Reeves A, Basu S, McKee M, Stuckler D, Sandgren A, Semenza J.Social protection and tuberculosis control in European countries 1995-2012 a cross-national statistical modelling analysis Lancet Infect Dis 2014 14 1105-1112
87. European Observatory on Access to Healthcare Access to health care for undocumented migrants in European Countries Paris, France: Medecins du Monde 2009
88. Faustini A, Hall A J, Perucci C A.Tuberculosis treatment outcomes in Europe: a systematic review Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 503-510.
89. Abarca Tomás B, Pell C, Bueno Cavanillas A, et al Tuberculosis in migrant populations a systematic review of the qualitative literature PLOS ONE 2013; 8: e82440.
90. D'Lugoff M I, Jones W, Kub J, Glass N, et al Tuberculosis screening in an at-risk immigrant Hispanic population in Baltimore city: an academic health center/local health department partnership J Cult Divers 2002; 9: 79-85.
91. Mor Z, Kolb H, Lidji M, Migliori G, Leventhal A.Tuberculosis diagnostic delay and therapy outcomes of nonnational migrants in Tel Aviv, 1998-2008 Euro Surveill 2013; 18: 20 433.
92. de Vries S G, Cremers A L, Heuvelings C C, et al Barriers and facilitators for the uptake of tuberculosis diagnostic and treatment services by hard-to-reach populations in low-And medium-incidence countries: a systematic review of qualitative literature Lancet Infect Dis 2017 [In press]
93. Lin S, Melendez-Torres G J.Systematic review of risk factors for nonadherence to TB treatment in immigrant populations Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2016; 110: 268-280.
94. Ingrosso L, Vescio F, Giuliani M, et al Risk factors for tuberculosis in foreign-born people (FBP) in Italy: a systematic review and meta-Analysis PLOS ONE 2014; 9: e94728.
95. Schwartzman K, Oxlade O, Barr RG, et al Domestic returns from investment in the control of tuberculosis in other countries N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1008-1020.
96. Grove N J, Zwi A B.Our health and theirs: forced migration, othering, and public health Soc Sci Med 2006; 62: 1931-1942.
97. World Health Organization The right to health Fact sheet No 31 GE 08-41061 Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2008.
98. Heldal E, Kuyvenhoven V, Wares F, et al Diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis in undocumented migrants in lowor intermediate-incidence countries Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008; 12: 878-888.
99. Storla D G, Yimer S, Bjune G A.A systematic review of delay in the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis BMC Public Health 2008; 8: 15.
100. Marks S M, Deluca N, WaltonW Knowledge, attitudes and risk perceptions about tuberculosis: US National Health Interview Survey Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008; 12: 1261-1267.
101. Thomas B A, Pell C, Cavanillas A B, Solvas J G, Pool R, Roura M.Tuberculosis in migrant populations a systematic review of the qualitative literature PLOS ONE 2013; 8: e82440.
102. Dara M, de Colombani P, Petrova-Benedict R, et al Minimum package for cross-border TB control and care in the WHO European region: a Wolfheze consensus statement Eur Respir J 2012; 40: 1081-1090.
103. Combellick J, Zuroweste E, Gany F M.TBNet: the impact of an innovative public-private intervention on tuberculosis control among an internationally mobile population J Immigr Refugee Stud 2011; 9: 229-241.
104. European Respiratory Society/World Health Organization, TB Consilium TB Consilium, 2016 Lausanne, Switzerland: ERS https://www.tbconsilium.org/Accessed February 2017.
105. Fox G J, Barry S E, Britton W J, Marks G B.Contact investigation for tuberculosis: a systematic review and metaanalysis Eur Respir J 2013; 41: 140-156.
106. World Health Organization Guidelines on the management of latent tuberculosis infection WHO/HTM/TB/2015.01 Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2015.
107. LÖnnroth K, Corbett E, Golub J, et al Systematic screening for active tuberculosis: justification, definitions and key considerations Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2013; 17: 289-298.
108. Nnadi C D, Anderson L F, Armstrong L R, et al Mind the gap: TB trends in the USA and the UK, 2000-2011 Thorax 2016; 71: 356-363.
109. Getahun H, Matteelli A, Abubakar I, et al Management of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection:WHOguidelines for low tuberculosis burden countries Eur Respir J 2015; 46: 1563-1576.
110. Alsdurf H, Hill P C, Matteelli A, Getahun H, Menzies D.The cascade of care in diagnosis and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review and metaanalysis Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16: 1269-1278.
111. Gutsfeld C, Olaru I D, Vollrath O, Lange C.Attitudes about tuberculosis prevention in the elimination phase: a survey among physicians in Germany PLOS ONE 2014; 9: e112681.
112. Oxlade O, Schwartzman K, Menzies D.Interferon-gamma release assays and TB screening in high-income countries: a cost-effectiveness analysis Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007; 11: 16-26.
113. Kulane A, Ahlberg BM, Berggren I.It is more than the issue of taking tablets: the interplay between migration policies and TB control in Sweden Health Policy 2010; 97: 26-31.
114. Zammarchi L, Casadei G, Strohmeyer M, et al A scoping review of cost-effectiveness of screening and treatment for latent tuberculosis infection in migrants from high-incidence countries BMC Public Health 2015; 15: 412.
115. Mandalakas A M, Menzies D.Is screening immigrants for latent tuberculosis cost-effective? Lancet Infect Dis 2011; 11: 418-419.
116. Dara M, Acosta C D, Rusovich V, et al Bacille Calmette-Gúerin vaccination: the current situation in Europe Eur Respir J 2014; 43: 24-35.
117. World Health Organization Guidance on how to prioritize globally constrained BCG vaccine supply to countries Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2015.