The Birth of a Public Sphere in Latin America During the Age of Revolution

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 425-457

  Uribe Uran, Victor M ^a  

^a FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 85016573100     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500002528     Document Type: Article

References (321)

1. For a case study showing that a “public space” in which to spread enlightened ideas and facilitate revolutionary action was in place before independence, see Pilar González Bernaldo, “La Revolución Francesa y la emergencia de nuevas prácticas de la política: La irrupción de la socia-bilidad política en el Río de la Plata revolucionario, 1810–1815,” in Ricardo Krebs and Christián Gazmuri, eds., La Revolución Francesa y Chile (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1990), 111–35, esp. 118.
2. The idea that sociability and debate were more private than public in the Spanish colonies at the time is argued in François-Xavier Guerra, “La desintegración de la monarquía hispánica: Revo-lución de independencia,” in Antonio Annino et al., eds., De los imperios a las naciones: Iberoamérica (Zaragoza: IberCaja, 1994), 195–227
3. and idem, “Revolución Francesa y revolu-ciones hispánicas: una relación compleja,” in idem, Modernidad e independencias (Madrid: Mapfre, 1992), 19–54. For the view that illiteracy and the predominance of the spoken world impeded the development of a public sphere in late colonial New Granada and similar places.
4. see Rebecca Earle, “Information and Disinformation in Late Colonial New Granada,” The Americas 54:2 (October, 1997), 167–84
5. See The Americas., 169, 172–73, 183
6. Michael Costeloe, The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835–1846. Hombres de Bien in the Age of Santa Anna (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 13
7. Hilda Sábato, “Citizenship, Political Participation and the Formation of the Public Sphere in Buenos Aires 1850s-1880s,” in Past and Present 136 (August, 1992), 139–63, esp. 151.
8. R. R. Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution: Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959–1964)
9. Eric J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution [Europe], 1789–1848 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1962).
10. See also the subsequent work by Charles Breunig, The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 -1850 (New York: Norton, 1970)
11. For other economic, social, and political developments in Latin America during this critical period see Mark D. Szuchman, ed., The Middle Period in Latin American History. Values and Attitudes in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988), esp. 11–13, 18
12. Kenneth J. Andrien and Lyman Johnson, eds., The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850 (Albuquerque: The University of New Mexico Press, 1994)
13. Jaime Rodríguez, ed., Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750–1850 (Boulder: Lynne Rien-ner Publishers, 1994)
14. and Jeremy Adelman, ed., Colonial Legacies. The Problem of Persistence in Latin American History (New York: Routledge, 1999).
15. Like most comparative historical research, this piece relies on abundant secondary literature. On occasion, it also uses primary sources to emphasize important facts and events. On the character of comparative historical research see the insightful piece by Theda Skocpol, “Emerging Agenda and Recurrent Strategies in Historical Sociology,” in Theda Skocpol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 356–386.
16. See also George M. Fredrickson, The Comparative Imagination. On the History of Racism, Nationalism, and Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), chapters 1 and 3
17. A recent work considers lawyers to have been the “midwives” of the new, critical “public politics” that arose in France over the course of the eighteenth century, waging a permanent public campaign against the despotism of the Crown and Church. See David A. Bell, Lawyers and Citizens. The Making of a Political Elite in Old Regime France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 8.
18. See also Lucien Karpik, “Lawyers and Politics in France: 1814–1950: The State, the Market and the Public,” Law and Social Inquiry 13 (1988), 707–36
19. John Markoff, The Abolition of Feudalism. Peasants, Lords, and Legislators in the French Revolution (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 607–611.
20. Cherly E. Martin, Governance and Society in Colonial Mexico: Chihuahua in the Eighteenth Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), chapters 4–6
21. Louisa S. Hoberman and Susan Socolow, eds., The Countryside in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996)
22. idem, Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).
23. See Magali Sarfatti, Spanish Bureaucratic-Patrimonialism in America (Berkeley, 1966)
24. Richard M. Morse, “The Heritage of Latin America,” in The Founding of New Societies. Latin America, South Africa, Canada and Australia, ed. Louis Hartz (New York, 1964), 123–77
25. Karen Spalding, ed., Essays in the Political, Social and Economic History of Colonial Latin America (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1982)
26. Mark Burkholder, “Bureaucrats,” in Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America, Susan Socolow and Louisa S. Hoberman, eds., (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986), 77–103.
27. On religious persecution see, for instance, Nicholas Griffiths, The Cross and the Serpent. Religious Repression and Resurgence in Colonial Peru (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996)
28. and Kenneth Mills, Idolatry and Its Enemies. Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640–1750 (Princeton: Princeton University Pres, 1997).
29. The increasing separation of the public and the private in the colonial period and during the first half of the nineteenth century requires further study. See some suggestive ideas in Gerald Turkel, Dividing Public and Private. Law, Politics, and Social Theory (New York: Praeger, 1992)
30. and Eugene Kamenka and Alice Erh-Soon Tay, “Public Law…Private Law.” In S.I. Benn and G.F. Gaus, eds., Public and Private in Social Life (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983), 67–92.
31. For a recent work questioning the lack of a clear distinction between private and public in the colonial period, see Ann Twinam, Public Lives, Private Secrets: Gender, Honor, Sexuality, and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1999), 27–31.
32. See Colin M. MacLachlan, Spain's Empire in the New World. The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), chapter 5, esp. 74–80, 86
33. Bernardino Bravo Lira, “Oficio y oficina, dos estapas en la historia del estado indiano,” Revista Chilena de Historia del Derecho 8 (1981), 73–93.
34. These rebellions have been the subject of abundant case studies and have also prompted comparative research. See Leon G. Campbell, “Recent Research on Andean Peasant Revolts, 1750- 1820,” Latin American Research Review (hereafter LARR) 16:1 (1979), 3–49
35. Anthony McFarlane, “Riot and Rebellion in Colonial Spanish America,” LARR 18:2 (1982), 212–21
36. idem, “Civil Disorders and Popular Protests in Late Colonial New Granada,” Hispanic American Historical Review (hereafter HAHR) 64:1 (February, 1984), 17- 54
37. idem, “Rebellions in Late Colonial Spanish America: A Comparative Perspective,” Bulletin of Latin American Research 14:3 (1995), 313–38
38. Friedrich Katz, ed., Riot, Rebellion and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), parts 1 and 2
39. Steve J. Stern, “The Struggle for Solidarity: Class, Culture, and Community in Highland America,” Radical History Review 27 (1983), 21–45
40. idem, “The Age of Andean Insurrection, 1742–1782: A Reappraisal,” in idem, ed., Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World, 18th to 20th Centuries (Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 34–93
41. Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and Revolts in Eighteenth Century Peru and Upper Peru (Cologne, 1985)
42. idem, “Las reformas fiscales borbónicas y su im-pacto en la sociedad colonial del Bajo y Alto Perú,” Historia y Cultura 16 (1983), 113–28
43. Jane M. Loy, “Forgotten Comuneros: The 1781 Revolt in the Llanos of Casanare,” HAHR 61:2 (1981), 231–57
44. Rebecca E. Mond, “Indian Rebellion and Bourbon Reform in New Granada: Riots in Pas-to, 1780–1800,” HAHR 73:1 (February, 1993), 99–124
45. Eric Van Young, La crisis del orden colonial. Estructura agraria y rebeliones populares de la Nueva España, 1750–1821 (Mexico, 1992)
46. Oscar Cornblit, Power and Violence in the Colonial City: Oruro from the Mining Renaissance to the Rebellion of Tupac Amaru (1740–1782) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
47. Luis Vieira da Silva, Autos de Devassa da Inconfidencia Mineira [trial documents], 7 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1936–1938), 1:107–14, 136–38, 142–45, 156–61; 2:205–8, 221–29, 441–53; 4:245–56
48. Kenneth Maxwell, Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750–1808 (Cambridge, 1973), chapters 4 and 5
49. Emilia Viotti da Costa, The Brazilian Empire. Myths and Histories (Chicago, 1985), 5, 9, 11.
50. Some educated mulattoes played significant roles in the war. Carolyn Fick, The Making of Haiti. The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990), esp. chapters 3 and 5, and pp. 126–27, 236
51. David P. Geggus, Slavery, War and Revolution. The British Occupation of Saint Domingue 1793–1798 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), chapter 2
52. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, “The Inconvenience of Freedom. Free People of Color and the Political Aftermath of Slavery in Dominica and Saint-Domingue/Haiti,” in Frank McGlynn and Seymour Drescher, eds., The Meaning of Freedom. Economics, Politics, and Culture After Slavery (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992), 147–82
53. Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 (London: Verso, 1988), chapters 5 and 6. For the insurgent role played by lawyers Raimond, Ogé, and others in Saint Domingue's late 1790 events see idem, 179–83.
54. C.L.R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution 2nd ed. rev. (New York: Vintage Books, 1963). For the impact of the French Revolution on the Circum-Caribbean territories
55. see David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus, eds., A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).
56. Viotti da Costa, Brazilian Empire, 5, 9.
57. See Nicolás Rangel, ed., Los precursores ideológicos de la guerra de independencia, 1789- 1794 [trial and other documents], 2 vols. (Mexico: Archivo General de la Nación, 1929–1932), passim
58. Raúl Cardiel Reyes, La primera conspiración por la independencia de México (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982), 47–51, 75–76, 80–81, 86.
59. Richard K. Murdoch, The Georgia-Florida Frontier, 1793 -1796. Spanish Reaction to French Intrigue and American Designs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951), chapter 4, esp. 41–42
60. Jane Landers, “Rebellion and Royalism in Spanish Florida. The French Revolution on Spain's Northern Colonial Frontier,” in A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean, eds. David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 156–77, esp. 160 and 174 n. 25.
61. Germán Pérez Sarmiento, Causas célebres a los precursores: ‘Derechos del Hombre’, pesquisa de sublevación, pasquines sediciosos. Copias fieles y exáctas de los originales que se guardan en el Archivo General de Indias, 2 vols. (Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional, 1939), 1:497–499.
62. See Reyes, La primera conspiración por la independencia de México, 38, 66
63. John Rydjord, “The French Revolution in Mexico,” HAHR (1929), 60–98, esp. 96. In 1795, one Juan Esteban Largacha, living in Mexico, was also accused of being a Francophile and had his house raided.
64. See Hugh Hamill Jr., The Hidalgo Revolt. Prelude to Independence (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1966), 9
65. Jacques Houdaille, “Frenchmen and Francophiles in New Spain From 1760 to 1810,” (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1956)[abstract of a dissertation], 14–15.
66. Cited in Rydjord, “The French Revolution in Mexico,” 82.
67. Richard Herr, The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), 325–326.
68. The early 1796 arrival of a regiment of black troops…feared because of their Jacobin ideals…and the presence in their midst of decorated General Jorge (Georges) Biassou, to whom Saint Domingue's revolutionary leader Toussaint Louverture had been an aide-de-guerre, caused major concern in Florida. See Jane Landers, “Rebellion and Royalism in Spanish Florida,” esp. 161–169.
69. See Ricardo R. Casillet-Bois, “El Río de la Plata y la Revolución Francesa, 1789–1800,” in Ricardo Levene, ed., Historia de la nación Argentina (desde los origenes hasta la organización de-finitiva en 1862) 2nd. ed., vol. 5, 1st. part (Buenos Aires: El Ateneo, 1957), 37–53, esp. 46–49
70. Lyman Johnson, “The French Conspiracy: Paranoia, Grievance, and Torture in Late Colonial Buenos Aires,” typewritten manuscript, 1999. I thank Professor Johnson for sending me this unpublished paper promptly upon request.
71. Later, though, España resumed his rebellious activities and was executed along with several accomplices. P. Michael McKinley, Pre-Revolutionary Caracas: Politics, Economy and Society, 1777–1811 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 134–136.
72. See Alfonso Ruy, A primera revoluçao social brasileira, 1798 2nd. ed. (Salvador, 1951)
73. Katia de Queiros Mattoso, Presença francesa no movimento democrático bahiana de 1798 (Salvador: Itapua, 1969)
74. Carlos Guilherme Mota, Atitudes de inovaçao no Brasil, 1789 -1801 (Lisbon: Livros Horizonte, 1970)
75. Luis Henrique Dias Tavares, Historia da sediçao intentada na Bahia em 1798: a ‘conspiraçao dos alfaiates’ (Sao Paulo, 1975)
76. Donald F. Ramos, “Social Revolution Frustrated: The Conspiracy of the Tailors in Bahia, 1798,” Luso-Brasilian Review 13 (Summer, 1976), 74–90
77. E. Bradford Burns, “Introducción,” in Robert M. Maniquis, Oscar R. Martí, and Joseph Pérez, eds., La Revolución Francesa y el mundo ibérico (Madrid: Turner Libros, 1989), 11–17, esp. 14.
78. In fact, many of the trials ended in acquittals, including the noisy one concerning the New Granadan lawyers. See Pérez Sarmiento, ed., Causas célebres a los precursores. A final seditious incident inspired by the French Revolution, known as the “Conspiracy of the Saussanas,” took place in 1801 in Pernambuco, Brazil's northeastern region. This case illustrates the Spanish Crown's extreme reactions. The private opinions of a planter who was unhappy about news of forced loans raised by the Crown, and who was also favorable to seeking “liberty” with the aid of France, were denounced by an American-born merchant from the city of Recife, resulting in a major judicial inquiry. See Roderick J. Barman, Brazil. The Forging of a Nation, 1798–1852 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 37, 254–255.
79. For regional research on the conservative attitudes of attorneys in pre-revolutionary France, contrary to what authors like Alfred Coban and Georges Lefebvre had argued, see Lenard Berlanstein, The Barrister of Tolouse, esp. chapter 6
80. Michael P. Fitzsimmons, The Parisian Order of Barristers and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), passim.
81. For the nuances and variety of lawyers' positions see Sarah Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs. The Causes Célèbres of Prerevolutionary France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 86–97
82. Timothy Tackett, Becoming a Revolutionary: the Deputies of the French National Assembly and the Emergence of a Revolutionary Culture (1789–1790) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
83. See Victor M. Uribe, “The Lawyers and New Granada's Late Colonial State,” Journal of Latin American Studies (hereafter JLS) 27:3 (October 1995), 517–49
84. Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution, 23, 35.
85. See William Taylor, Magistrates of the Sacred. Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), 449–463.
86. On the repercussions of the French Revolution in Spain and its colonies, see Robert M. Maniquis et al. eds., La Revolución Francesa y el mundo Ibérico (Madrid: Turner Libros, 1989)
87. Ricardo Krebs and Cristián Gazmuri, eds., La revolución francesa y Chile (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1990)
88. Alberro Solange et al., eds., La Revolución Francesa en México (Méx-ico: El Colegio de México, 1992)
89. Joseph K. Klaits and Michael H. Haltzel eds., The Global Ramifications of the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), esp. 158–176.
90. On the rise of a new “mental horizon” and a new “public opinion” in Brazil, see also the insightful analysis by Melo, Atitudes de Inovaçao, chapter 3.
91. See J.H. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994)
92. Benjamin Nathaus, “Habermas's ‘Public Sphere’ in the Era of the French Revolution,” French Historical Studies 16 (1990), 620–641.
93. Habermas, Transformation of the Public Sphere, 23.
94. For an interesting discussion of how Habermas's “public sphere” emerged within civil society as a counterpart to public authority see Dena Goodman, “Public Sphere and Private Life: Toward a Synthesis of Current Historiographical Approaches to the Old Regime,” History and Theory 31:1 (1992), 1–20.
95. See Guerra, “Revolución francesa y revoluciones hispánicas: una relación compleja,” esp. 37.
96. See Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 23.
97. See Guillermo Hernández de Alba, ed., Archivo epistolar del sabio naturalista José Celesti-no Mutis, 3 vols. (Bogotá: Editorial A.B.C., 1958)
98. Juan Carlos Arias Divit, Las expediciones cien-tíficas españolas durante el siglo XVIII (Madrid: Instituto de Cultura Hispánica, 1958)
99. J. Jaramil-lo Arango, “Don José Celestino Mutis y las expediciones botánicas españolas del siglo XVIII al Nuevo Mundo,” Revista de la Academia Colombiana de las Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 9 (1958)
100. María de los Angeles Catalayud A., Catálogo de las expediciones y viajes científicos es-pañoles. Siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid: Museo de Ciencias Naturales, 1984)
101. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), chapter 6. For a useful typology of these and several other expeditions.
102. see Fermín del Pino Díaz and Angel Guirao de Vierna, “Las espediciones ilustradas y el estado español,” Revista de Indias 47, 18 (1987), 378- 429
103. see Raúl Ro-dríguez Nozal and Antonio González Bueno, “Las colonias al servicio de la ciencia metropolitana: la financiación de las “Floras Americanas,” Revista de Indias 55:205 (1995), 597–634
104. This is clearly demonstrated by Thomas F. Glick, “Science and Independence in Latin America (with Special Reference to New Granada),” HAHR 71:2 (1991), 307–334.
105. Herr, Eighteenth-Century Revolution, chapter 6
106. Emilio Novoa, Las sociedades económicas de amigos del país. Su influencia en la emancipación colonial americana (Madrid: Prensa Es-pañola, 1955), 84, 87, 107
107. Jean Serrailh, “Les sociétés Economiques de Amis du Pays,” in L'Es-pagne éclairée de la seconde moitie du XVIII siécle (Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1964), 223–85
108. Mariano García Ruipérez, Nuevas aportaciones al estudio de las sociedades ecnonómicas de Amigos del País (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1988)
109. On the creation of such societies in New Granada, see Margarita Garrido, Reclamos y representaciones, 44
110. Hans-Joachim König, En el camino hacia la nación. Nacionalismo en el proceso de formación del esta-do y de la nación en la Nueva Granada, 1750–1856 (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1993), 313- 322
111. Correo curioso, erudito, económico y mercantil de la Ciudad de Santafé de Bogotá, no. 39, Martes 10 de Noviembre, 1801; no. 40, Martes 17 de Noviembre, 1801. For other regions (e.g., Veracruz, Lima, Santiago de Cuba, La Habana, Guatemala, Quito, Buenos Aires) and frustrated attempts to create a similar society in Mexico in 1799 see F. de las Barras Aragón, “Las sociedades económicas en Indias,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 12 (1955), 417–447
112. R. J. Shafer, The Economic Societies in the Spanish World (1763–1821) (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1958), 145–249
113. Felipe Barreda y Laos, Vida intelectual del virreinato del Perú (Buenos Aires: Talleres Gráficos Argentinos, 1973)
114. José Toribio Medina, Historia y bibliografía de la imprenta en el antigüo virreinato del Río de la Plata (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1965), 138–39
115. Carlos Ibar-guren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución argentina (1800–1825) (Buenos Aires: Espasa-Calpe, 1937), 16–21
116. Horacio J. Noboa Zumarraga, Las sociedades porteñas y su acción revolu-cionaria (1800–1837) (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Buenos Aires, 1939), 45–58.
117. Buenos Aires's Sociedad Patriótica excluded “foreigners, blacks, mulatoes, chinos, zambos, quarterones, and mestizos” or anyone with non-Christian or “bad” (e.g., illegitimate, non-Spanish) blood.
118. See Ibarguren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución argentina, 16
119. Shafer, The Economic Societies, 353 (emphasis added).
120. Shafer, The Economic Societies, passim.
121. Felipe Barreda Laos, Vida intelectual del Vireinato del Perú (Buenos Aires: L.J. Rosso, 1937), 308–309.
122. Novoa, Las sociedades económicas de amigos del país, 86.
123. Married to elite lawyer Francisco González Manrique, this woman sponsored the tertulia El Buen Gusto, frequented by lawyers Camilo Torres and Custodio Garcia Rovira, and by scientist Francisco José de Caldas. José Dolores Monsalve, Mujeres de la independencia (Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional, 1926), 22–24, 146.
124. See José María Vergara y Vergara, Historia de la literatura en la Nueva Granada, 3 vols. (Bo-gotá: Biblioteca de la Presidencia de Colombia, 1958), 2, chapter 12
125. Rafael Antolínez Camargo, El Papel Periodico de Santafé de Bogotá, 1791–1797. Vehículo de las luces y la contrarevolución (Bogotá: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura Popular, 1991), chapter 3, 50–62
126. Garrido, Reclamos y representaciones, 47–48
127. Glick, “Science and Independence,” 325–327.
128. See Noble David Cook, “Education and the Leaders of Peruvian Independence,” in Francisco Miró Quesada et al. eds., Historia, problemas y promesa, 2 vols. (Lima: Pontificia University Católica del Perú, 1978), 1: 63–88, esp. 66 and 69
129. Barreda Laos, Vida intelectual del virreinato del Perú, 310–311.
130. Boxes to collect news were placed in six different locations throughout the city. See José Toribio Medina, La imprenta en Lima (1584–1824), 4 vols. (Santiago de Chile: Impreso y graba-do en la casa del autor, 1904–1907), 3: 202–203
131. Felix Denegri Luna, “Apuntes para un estudio bib-liográfico de la Gaceta del Gobierno (1823–1826),” in Gaceta del Gobierno del Peru (Caracas: Fundación Eugenio Mendoza, 1967), 1:lxiii-c
132. Carlos A. Romero, Los orígenes del periodismo en el Perú, 1594–1790 (Lima: Libreria e Imprenta Gil, 1940), 61–71. Some mistakenly attribute Peru's Diario to Spanish colonel-lawyer Francisco A. Cabello.
133. See Juan Romulo Fernández, His-toria del periodismo argentino (Buenos Aires: Libreria Perlado, 1943) 39
134. See August 18 royal order in Romero, Los orígenes del periodismo en el Perú, 67–68.
135. See Medina, La imprenta en Lima, 3:239
136. Denegri Luna, “Apuntes para un estudio bibli-ográfico de la Gaceta del Gobierno,” lxix
137. Jose Durand, “Prologo,” in Hipólito Unanue, Guia políti-ca, eclesiastica y militar, ix-xxxiii
138. Cook, “Education and the Leaders of Peruvian Independence,” 73
139. Romero, Los orígenes del periodismo en el Perú, 51–61.
140. Simon Collier, Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 1808–1833 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 271.
141. Viceroy Gil de Taboada y Lemos added that newspapers rooted ideas firmly in people's minds “al abrigo del deleite con que se lee este género de escritos” (“disguised in pieces people enjoyed to read”). See Romero, Los orígenes del periodismo en el Perú, 368.
142. See Denegri Luna, “Apuntes para un estudio bibliográfico de la Gaceta del Gobierno,” lxix.
143. On the circulation, nature, and importance of this newspaper see Renán Silva, Prensa y revolu-ción a finales del siglo XVIII (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1988).
144. For the limited influence of printed material among most New Granadans see Earle, “Information and Disinformation,” 168–74
145. See José Toribio Medina, La imprenta en Bogotá y la inquisición en Cartagena de Indias (Bo-gotá: Editorial A.B.C., 1952), 33–36, 50–52, 57, 59–62
146. Garrido Reclamos y representaciones, 45–49
147. Correo curioso, erudito, económico y mercantil. Facsimilar (Bogotá: Biblioteca Nacional-Colcultura, 1993).
148. Medina, La imprenta en Bogotá, 60.
149. Correo curioso, económico y mercantil de Santafé de Bogotá, no. 14, May 19, 1801; no. 28, August 25, 1801; no. 37, October 27, 1801. Other authors refer to 17 “effective” subscribers in August 1801, with an increase to forty later that year. Medina, La imprenta en Bogotá, 33–36, 50- 52, 57, 59–62.
150. See also Correo curioso, no. 46, December 29, 1801
151. Medina, La imprenta en Bogotá, 33–36, 50–52, 57, 59–62.
152. See Victor M. Uribe, “Preparando ‘mandarines’: Apuntes sobre la historia de la ciencia ad-ministrativa en Nueva Granada durante la colonia y comienzos de la república, 1590–1850,” Innovar, Revista de Ciencias Administrativas y Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá No. 7, Enero-Junio, 1996, 87–97. Translations of texts on the new “science” of political economy were published in Argentina as early as 1796. Lessons in political economy began in Guatemala in 1812 under the auspices of the city's Sociedad de Amigos del País
153. See José Toribio Medina, Historia y bibliografía de la imprenta en la América española. Parte segunda: Virreynato del Río de la Plata (N. Israel: Amsterdam, 1965), 103
154. Novoa, Las sociedades económicas de amigos del país, 101.
155. See Ruth Wold, El Diario de México. Primer Cotidiano de Nueva España (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1970), 14–15, 17
156. Henry Lepidus, “The History of Mexican Journalism,” University of Missouri Bulletin 29:4 (January 1928), 20–21.
157. Its editor, José Mariano Almansa, was instrumental in the foundation of Veracruz's consula-do (merchants' guild). He competed to be one of the American deputies to the Spanish Junta Central. See José Toribio Medina, La imprenta en Veracruz (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeveriana, 1904), 18–19.
158. It published public edicts, royal orders, letters and replies, and some literary works. During the 1810s it was used by the Spanish government against the rebels. See Lepidus, “History of Mexican Journalism,” 19–20.
159. See “La difusión de la modernidad: Alfabetización, imprenta y revolución en Nueva España,” in idem, Modernidad e independencias, 275–318.
160. See Lepidus, “History of Mexican Journalism,” 20–21.
161. For this argument see Sabato, “Citizenship, Political Participation and the Formation of the Public Sphere in Buenos Aires 1850s-1880s,” 151.
162. Cabello contributed to Lima's El Mercurio and was influenced by Peruvian intellectuals Baquijano and Unanue. Ibarguren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución argentina, 14–15.
163. Medina, Historia y bibliografía de la imprenta en el antigüo Virreinato del Río de la Plata, 131–39. See issue no. 214, January 14, 1807.
164. Historia y bibliografía de la imprenta en el antigüo Virreinato del Río de la Plata., 167–68, 175.
165. See Historia y bibliografía de la imprenta en el antigüo Virreinato del Río de la Plata., 362, 392–95
166. Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 39–45.
167. Jorge Myers, Orden y virtud. El discurso republicano en el régimen rosista (Buenos Aires: University Nacional de Quilmes, 1995).
168. See, for instance, Guerra, “La difusión de la modernidad: Alfabetización, imprenta y revolu-ción en Nueva España”
169. Noemi Goldman, “Iluminismo e independencia: Monteagudo y Pasos Sil-va (Kanki) en la prensa revolucionaria de 1811–1812,” in Eliseo Veron et al., El discurso político. Lengüajes y acontecimientos (Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1987), 121–44
170. Antolínez Camargo, El Pa-pel Periodico de Santafé de Bogotá
171. Silva, Prensa y revolución a finales del siglo XVIII, passim.
172. For similar developments in England and France, better explored and larger in scale, see Joad Raymond, The Invention of the Newspaper: English Newsbooks, 1641–1649 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996)
173. Michael Harris, London Newspapers in the Age of Walpole: A Study of the Origins of the English Modern Press (London: Associated University Presses, 1987)
174. Jack R. Censer and Jeremy D. Popkin, eds., Press and Politics in Pre-Revolutionary France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987)
175. Robert Darnton and Daniel Roche, eds., Revolution in Print: The Press in France, 1775–1800 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)
176. Jeremy Popkin, Revolutionary News: The Press in France 1789–1799 (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 1990)
177. and Jack R. Censer, The French Press in the Age of Enlightenment (London: Routledge, 1994). Equivalent research is as yet unavailable for Latin America.
178. Guerra, “La desintegración de la monarquía hispánica,” 195–227
179. idem, “Revolución france-sa y revoluciones hispánicas: una relación compleja”
180. González Bernaldo, “La Revolución France-sa y la emergencia de nuevas prácticas de la política,” 112.
181. Earle, “Information and Disinformation.”
182. See, for instance, José Toribio Medina, La imprenta en Puebla de Los Angeles, 1640–1821 (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Cervantes, 1908), passim, esp. 583, 609, 689, 741
183. idem, La imprenta en La Habana (1707–1810) (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1904), xxi-xxii, 52, 70–71.
184. See comments by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 61
185. Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism.,62
186. Osvaldo Vicente Cutolo, “Los abogados en la Revolución de Mayo,” Tercer Congreso Inter-nacional de Historia de America (Buenos Aires, n.p., 1961), 5:199–212
187. Ricardo Levene, “La his-toria de los abogados en el Río de la Plata y su intervención en la Revolución de Mayo,” Revista Jurídica Argentina La Ley 41 (January-March, 1946), 911–922.
188. For the leading revolutionary role of intellectuals in Río de la Plata see González Bernaldo, “La Revolución Francesa y la emergencia de nuevas prácticas de la política,” 124–28
189. See Victor M. Uribe, “Kill all the Lawyers! Lawyers and the Movement for Independence in New Granada, 1809–1820,” The Americas 52:2 (October, 1995), 175–210
190. idem, Honorable Lives. Lawyers, Family, and Politics in Colombia, 1780–1850 (Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2000).
191. Alberto Flóres Galindo, Aristocracia y plebe. Lima, 1760–1830 (Lima: Mosca Azul Editores, 1985), 71–72
192. David Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763 -1810 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 317–318.
193. Mexican priests were also generally antirevolution-ary. See Taylor, Magistrates of the Sacred, 449–463.
194. See Brading, Miners and Merchants, 344
195. Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt, 106, 144, 147, 169.
196. Among the society's seventeen lawyers were Manuel Arguelles, Pedro Cárdenas, Nicolás Be-cerra, Manuel Díaz, José Ignacio Espinoza, Jose María Falcón, José Benito Guerra, José María Llave, José Matoso, Juan Nazario Peimbert, and Antonio del Río. See Virginia Guedea, En busca de un gobierno alterno: Los Guadalupes de México (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, 1992), 362–83
197. Timothy E. Anna, The Fall of the Royal Government in Mexico City (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), 119
198. Wilbert H. Timmons, “Los Guadalupes: A Secret Society in the Mexican Revolution for Independence,” HAHR 30:4 (November, 1950), 453–499.
199. See also María del Refugio González, “El Ilustre y Real Colegio de Abogados de México frente a la Revolución Francesa (1808–1827),” in Alberro Solange, Alicia Hernández, and Elias Trabulse, eds., La Revolución Francesa en México (México: El Colegio de México, 1992), 111–135.
200. Cook, “Education and the Leaders of Peruvian Independence,” 75.
201. On the creation of revolutionary associations, lodges, and societies during the 1810s see Pilar González Bernaldo, “Producción de una nueva legitimidad: ejército y sociedades patrióticas en Buenos Aires entre 1810 y 1813,” Cahiers des Ameriques Latines 10 (1990), 177–95
202. Halperín Donghi, Politics, Economics and Society, 215–26
203. José A. Ferrer Benimelli, “Bolívar y la mason-ería,” Revista de Indias 43:172 (July-December 1983), 631–78
204. Shafer, Economic Societies
205. L. E. Fisher, “Early Masonry in Mexico (1808–1826),” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 42:3 (1939)
206. José María Mateos, Historia de la masonería en México desde 1806 hasta 1884 (México: La Tol-erancia, 1884).
207. See Houdaille, “Frenchmen and Francophiles in New Spain,” 16–17.
208. José A. Ferrer Benimeli, “Bolívar y la masonería,” Revista de Indias 43:172 (July-December, 1983), 631–87, esp. 632, 640–51
209. Juan Canter, “Las sociedades secretas y literarias,” in Lev-ene, ed., Historia de la nación Argentina, vol. 5, 1st. part, 189–305, esp. 212–23.
210. See Mateos, Historia de la masonería en México desde 1806 hasta 1884, 8–9, 12–14.
211. See Timmons, “Los Guadalupes: A Secret Society in the Mexican Revolution for Independence,” 453–479
212. Guedea, En busca de un gobierno alternativo: Los Guadalupes de México, 362–383.
213. Canter, “Las sociedades secretas y literarias,” 208–210.
214. Ignacio Núñez, Noticias históricas de la República Argentina, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Ori-entación Cultural, 1952 [1898]), 2:140–45
215. Haydee E. Frizzi de Longono, Las sociedades liter-arias y el periodismo, 1800–1852 (Buenos Aires: Asociación Interamericana de Escritores, 1947), 43–45
216. Canter, “Las sociedades secretas y literarias,” 260–274.
217. Ibarguren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución Argentina, 45–75, 84–100, 106–7
218. Noboa Zumarraga, Las sociedades portenas y su acción revolucionaria, 69–120
219. Frizzi de Lon-gono, Las sociedades literarias y el periodismo, 59–65.
220. González Bernaldo, “Producción de una nueva legitimidad,” 184
221. idem, “La Revolución Francesa y la emergencia de nuevas formas de sociabilidad política,” 121.
222. See Lepidus, “History of Mexican Journalism,” 25–33
223. Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 47–56
224. Medina, La imprenta en Santafé; idem, La imprenta en Caracas, 1808–1821 (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1904), vi-vii, 12, 15, 17, 19
225. idem, La imprenta en Oax-aca, 1720–1820 (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1904), 16, 18, 20–22
226. idem, La imprenta en Veracruz, 34
227. idem, La imprenta en Mérida de Yucatán, 1813–1821 (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1904), ix, 14–15, 20
228. idem, La imprenta en Mérida de Yucatán, 1813–1821, edición commemorativa con prólogo y apéndices por Victor M. Suárez (Mérida: Ediciones Suárez, 1956), 68, 76–77, 82, 95, 97–98
229. José María Vergara y Vergara, Historia de la literatura en el Nue-vo Reino de Granada, 1790–1820, 2 vols. (Bogotá: Biblioteca Banco Popular, 1974)
230. Porras Bar-renechea, El periodismo en el Perú, 17–20
231. Denegri Luna, “Apuntes para un estudio bibliográfico de la Gaceta del Gobierno,” lxx-lxxi
232. Novoa, Las sociedades económicas de amigos del país, 104- 5, 122–25
233. François-Xavier Guerra, “Una modernidad alternativa,” in idem, Modernidad e inde-pendencias, 113.
234. For similar developments in 1808–1810 Spain see Guerra, “La pedagogia política de la prensa revolucionaria española,” La pedagogia política de la prensa revolucionaria española., 227–274.
235. Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 47–56
236. Juan Canter, Monteagudo, Pasos Silva y el Censor de 1812 (Buenos Aires: Casa Jacobo Peuser, 1924)
237. Goldman, “Iluminismo e indepen-dencia,” 121–44
238. Medina, La imprenta en Santafé; Medina, La imprenta en Oaxaca, 1720–1820, 16, 18, 20–22
239. Medina, La imprenta en Oaxaca, 1720–1820, 16, 18, 20–22
240. idem, La imprenta en Veracruz, 34
241. idem, La imprenta en Mérida de Yucatán, 1813- 1821, ix, 14–15, 20
242. idem, La imprenta en Arequipa, el Cuzco, Trujillo y otros pueblos del Perú, 1820–1825 (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1904), vi, 14, 22, 33, 35, 42, 64 -71
243. Vergara y Vergara, Historia de la literatura en el Nuevo Reino de Granada, 1790–1820
244. David Bushnell, “The Development of the Press in Gran Colombia,” HAHR 30 (November, 1950), 432–452.
245. Lepidus, “History of Mexican Journalism”
246. Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 39–45
247. Tulio Halperín Donghi, “The Colonial Letrado as a Revolutionary Intellectual: Deán Fu-nes as Seen Through his Apuntamientos para una Biografía,” in Mark D. Szuchman and Jonathan C. Brown, eds., Revolution and Restoration. The Rearrangement of Power in Argentina, 1776–1860 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 54–73.
248. See also Uribe, “Kill all the Lawyers!”
249. Ricardo Zorraquin Becú, “La doctrina jurídica de la Revolución de Mayo,” Revista del Instituto de Historia del Derecho 11 (1960), 47–68
250. idem, “Algo más sobre la doctrina jurídica de la Revolu-ción de Mayo,” Revista del Instituto de Historia del Derecho 13 (1962), 139–171.
251. The exact words “el auxilio de la imprenta [a nuestra gloriosa revolución] … es quizás de mayor necesidad que las bocas de fuego” were printed in Oaxaca's 1812 Semanario Patriótico. See Medina, La imprenta en Oaxaca, 20.
252. See Linda Arnold, Bureaucracy and Bureaucrats in Mexico City, 1742–1835 (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1988), 61.
253. Yucatán's 1821 royal governor complained that the patriotic press “consiguió a los pocos meses desterrar la mayor parte de aquella fuerza moral con que yo podía apoyar mi mando.” See Medina, La imprenta en Mérida de Yucatán, xi.
254. See Habermas, Transformation of the Public Sphere, 23.
255. For a recent statement of the “bourgeois” class interests reflected in France's pre-revolutionary advertisements see Colin Jones, “The Great Chain of Buying: Medical Advertisement, the Bourgeois Public Sphere, and the Origins of the French Revolution,” American Historical Review 101:1 (February, 1996), 13–40.
256. On the social background of some of Spanish America's revolutionary lawyer-journalists see Lepidus, “History of Mexico's Journalism”
257. Donald F. Stevens, Origins of Political Instability in Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992)
258. Costeloe, The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835–1846
259. Tulio Halperin Donghi, Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina, esp. 49
260. Uribe, “Kill all the Lawyers!”
261. Cook, “Education and the Leaders of Peruvian Independence.”
262. Halperín Donghi, Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina, 49
263. idem, “The Colonial le-trado as a Revolutionary Intellectual.”
264. Guerra has forcefully argued that the Hispanic revolutions were promoted by a socioeco-nomically heterogeneous group of bourgeois, nobles, professors, students, and intellectuals who belonged to a common cultural world. They were first and foremost a clase cultural rather than a clase social. See Guerra, Modernidad e independencias, 14, 101.
265. As a result of their revolutionary political activism and journalism, lawyers and other intellectuals were targets of Spanish repression. In regions like Colombia, a quarter of the total number of attorneys were executed during the 1810s. In Mexico, several were also persecuted, exiled, and even ajusticiados (executed). This can be presumed to have occurred also in Río de la Plata and Peru, though research on these areas is still sparse. Uribe, “Kill all the Lawyers!” Fragmentary information on the Mexican case can be found in González, “El Ilustre y Real Colegio de Abogados de México,” 119.
266. Paul Gootenberg, Between Silver and Guano. Commercial Policy and the State in Postin-dependence Peru (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989)
267. Richard Graham, Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990)
268. Stevens, Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico; Costeloe, The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835–1846
269. Torcuato S. Di Tella, National Popular Politics in Early Independent Mexico, 1820–1847 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995)
270. Rafael Rojas, “Una maldición silenciada. El panfleto político en el México independiente,” Historia Mexicana 47:1 (1997), 35–67.
271. See also Eduardo Posada-Carbó, ed., Wars, Parties and Nationalism: Essays on the Politics and Society of Nineteenth-Century Latin America (London, 1995).
272. Fabio Zambrano, “Las sociabilidades moder-nas en la Nueva Granada, 1820–1848,” Cahiers des Ameriques Latines 10 (1990), 197–203
273. Timothy E. Anna, Forging Mexico, 1821–1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998)
274. Uribe-Uran, “‘Honorable Lives’: Lawyers, Family, and Politics in Colombia, 1780–1850.”
275. See Correo Semanario de México, no. 1, 22 November, 1826, in José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, Obras, 6 vols. (México: University Nacional Autonoma, 1975), 6:17.
276. What we have learned about provincial and popular involvement in politics and nation-building in the Mexican and Peruvian cases may be extended to other regions. See Florencia Mallon, Peasant and Nation. The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995)
277. Peter Guardino, “Barbarism or Republican Law? Guerrero's Peasants and National Politics, 1820–1846,” HAHR 75:2 (1995), 185–213
278. idem, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State. Guerrero, 1800–1857 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996)
279. Guy P.C. Thomson, “Bulwarks of Patriotic Liberalism: the National Guard, Philharmonic Corps and Patriotic Juntas in Mexico, 1847–1888,” JLAS 22 (1990), 31–68
280. idem, “Popular Aspects of Liberalism in Mexico, 1848–1888,” Bulletin of Latin American Research 10:3 (1991), 265–92
281. idem, Patriotism, Politics and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Juan Francisco Lucas and the Puebla Sierra (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999). For preliminary findings on Colombia see Malcolm Deas, “La presencia de la política nacional en la vida provinciana, pueblerina y rural de Colombia en el primer siglo de la república,” La unidad nacional en América Latina. Del regionalismo a la nacionalidad, Marco Palacios, ed., (México: El Colegio de México, 1983), 149–73
282. For preliminary findings on Colombia see Malcolm Deas, “La presencia de la política nacional en la vida provinciana, pueblerina y rural de Colombia en el primer siglo de la república,” La unidad nacional en América Latina. Del regionalismo a la nacionalidad, Marco Palacios, ed., (México: El Colegio de México, 1983), 149–73
283. idem, “La política en la vida cotidiana republicana,” Historia de la vida cotidiana en Colombia, Beatríz Castro Carvajal, ed., (Bogotá: Norma, 1996), 271–290.
284. Richard Graham, Patronage and Politics
285. Virginia Guedea, “Las primeras elecciones pop-ulares en la ciudad de México,” Mexican Studies 5:1 (1989), 25–68
286. idem, “Los procesos elec-torales insurgentes,” Estudios de historia novohispana 11 (1991), 201–249
287. idem, “El pueblo de México y la política capitalina,” 27–61
288. Guerra, “Las primeras elecciones generales americanas,” 177–225
289. Eduardo Posada-Carbó, “Alternación y república: Elecciones en la Nueva Granada y Venezuela, 1835–1836,” paper presented at the conference “The Expansion of Political Citizenship in Latin America,” Bogotá, August 29–31, 1995
290. Antonio Annino, Historia de las elecciones en América Latina durante el siglo XIX (México, 1996)
291. Alberto Navas Blanco, Las elecciones presidenciales en Venezuela del siglo XIX, 1830–1854 (Caracas, 1993)
292. Di Tella, National Popular Politics.
293. See as well the papers in the panels “Nation-Building, Political Space, and Elections in 19th Century Argentina, Brazil and Mexico,” LASA XVIII International Congress, Atlanta, 1994
294. “Electoral Participation in the Making of Spanish American Republics, 1830–1930,” LASA XIX International Congress, Washington, DC, 1995
295. Victor Peralta Ruíz, “Elecciones, con-stitucionalismo y revolución en el Cusco, 1809–1815,” Revista de Indias 56:206 (1996), 99–131.
296. Finally, see Eduardo Posada-Carbó, ed., Elections Before Democracy: The History of Elections in Europe and Latin America (London: St. Martins's Press, 1996).
297. For this argument see Sábato, “Citizenship, Political Participation and the Formation of the Public Sphere in Buenos Aires 1850s-1880s,” 151.
298. Ibarguren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución Argentina, 108–119
299. Frizzi de Longo-ni, Las sociedades literarias y el periodismo, 71–80
300. Halperin Donghi, “The Colonial Letrado as a Revolutionary Intellectual,” 68–71.
301. See Ignacio B. Núñez, Noticias históricas, políticas y estadísticas de las Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata (Londres: R. Ackermann, 1825), 26.
302. These included Buenos Aires' literary Sociedad Valeper (1822–1823)
303. which published El Verdadero Amigo del País, the 1822 Sociedad de Amigos del País, which published the Ambigü de Buenos Aires, and the 1828 Sociedad Filantrópica de Buenos Aires. See Ibarguren, Las sociedades literarias y la revolución Argentina, 119–37
304. Noboa Zumarraga, Las sociedades porteñas y su acción revolucionaria, 127–45
305. Frizzi de Longoni, Las sociedades literarias y el periodismo, 71–88.
306. At least one, La Gaceta Mercantil, lasted close to three decades, from 1823 to 1852. For some statistics and a complete list with publication dates see Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 69, 220–26
307. Pilar González Bernaldo de Quiros, Civilité et Politique aux Origines de la Nation Argentine. Les Sociabilités à Buenos Aires, 1829–1862 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999), 125.
308. On Rosas's despotic leadership see John Lynch, Argentine Dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas 1829–1852 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), esp. chapters 5 and 6.
309. Fernández, Historia del periodismo argentino, 225–32
310. Oscar A. Beltrán, Historia del periodismo argentino (Buenos Aires: Sopena, 1943).
311. For telling statistics see Jorge Myers, Orden y virtud. El discurso republicano en el régimen rosista (Buenos Aires: University Nacional de Quilmes, 1995) 28.
312. See Lynch, Argentine Dictator, 158, 180–183.
313. See Domingo. F. Sarmiento, Barbarism and Civilization. Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants (New York: Hafner Press, 1868 [1845])
314. Noboa Zumarraga, Las sociedades porteñas y su acción revolucionaria, 149–69
315. Jose Carlos Chiaramonte, Ciudades, provincias, es-tados: Orígenes de la nación Argentina (1800–1846) (Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1997), chapters 3 and 4
316. Frizzi de Longoni, Las sociedades literarias y el periodismo, 91–110.
317. Jorge Myers, Orden y virtud, 23–31.
318. Myers, Orden y virtud, 29.
319. Jorge Myers, Orden y virtud, chapters 3 and 4.
320. For a recent assessment of the development of public opinion, political sociability, and the public sphere under Rosas, see González Bernaldo de Quirós, Civilité et Politique.
321. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, xviii.