The development of broadside gunnery, 1450–1650

Mariners Mirror

Volumn 82, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 301-324

  Rodger, N A M ^a,b  

^a NATIONAL MARITIME MUSEUM   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85015893711     PISSN: 00253359     EISSN: 2049680X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00253359.1996.10656604     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Naish, G. P.B., 1952. The Naval Miscellany IV Vol. 92, 1952–84. ‘Documents Illustrating the History of the Spanish Armada’ in, ed. Christopher Lloyd (Navy Records Society [NRS] Vol., quoted at p. 16
2. Calendar of State Papers Spanish, The earlier version by M.A.S. Hume in theIV, 247, is more accurate
3. La Armada Invencible 1067–8. Cesáreo Fernández Duro, (Madrid, 1884–85, 2 vols), No. 94; also in Gabriel Maura Gamazo, Duque de Maura, El Designio de Felipe II y el episodio de la Armada Invencible (Madrid, 1957), 250. It repeats the terms of a letter of 14 September 1587 to the Marquis of Santa Cruz which is printed by Enrique Herrera Oria, Felipe II y el Marqués de Santa Cruz en la Empresa de Inglaterra (Madrid, 1946), 72; and now in La Batalla del Mar Océano:Corpus Documental de las hostilidades entre España e Inglaterra (1568–1604), ed. Jorge Calvar Gross et al (Madrid, 1988ff, 3 vols to date) III
4. 1960. The Spanish Armada London For example Michael Lewis (125; Garrett Mattingley, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada (London, 1959), 98; Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution:Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800 (Cambridge, 1988), 94; Armada 1588–1988:An International Exhibition to Commemorate the Spanish Armada, ed. M.J. Rodriguez-Salgado et al (London, 1988), 34. A particularly egregious mistranslation is in E.M. Tenison, Elizabethan England (Leamington Spa, 1933–60,12 vols in 14) IV, 214, rendering grandes cargas de arcabuçaços y cañonaços as ‘heavy volleys of harquebus shots and broadsides of artillery’
5. Corbett, Julian S., Drake and the Tudor Navy (London, 2nd edn, 1899, 2 vols), II, 75
6. In an article looking at the English case from English sources, I can only glance at other countries, but there are good reasons to believe that at least in some developments, the English followed the Portuguese, Scots, and Danes.
7. Drake, See for example CorbettI, 51; Lewis, Armada, 69; Mattingley, Armada, 98; Peter Padfield, Guns at Sea (London, 1973), 44
8. Pryor, John H., 1988. Geography, Technology and War:Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 101–12. Cambridge (5966. Noël Fourquin, ‘Galères du Moyen-Age’, in Quand voguaient les galères (Paris, Musée de la Marine, 1990), 67–87. John E. Dotson, ‘Merchant and Naval Influences on Galley Design at Venice and Genoa in the Fourteenth Century’, in New Aspects of Naval History, ed. Craig L. Symonds (Annapolis, Md, 1981), 20–32. The Age of the Galley:Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre- classical Times, ed. John Morrison (London, 1995), 101–16. P.E. Russell, The English intervention in Spain & Portugal in the time of Edward III & Richard II (Oxford, 1953), 229–31. Christiane Villain-Gandossi, Le Navire Médiéval à Travers les Miniatures (Paris, 1985), 28. Federico Foerster Laures, ‘The warships of the Kings of Aragon and their fighting tactics during the 13th and 14th centuries AD’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology XVI (1987), 19–29. Lawrence V. Mott, ‘Ships of the 13th-century Catalan Navy5, XIX (1990)
9. 1990. Tools of War:Instruments, Ideas and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871 Notably by William Maltby ‘Politics, Professionalism, and the Evolution of Sailing-Ship Tactics, 1650–1714’, in, ed. John A. Lynn (Urbana, Illinois, 53–73. Cf. Parker, Military Revolution, 96
10. Corbett. 1900. “ Drake II, 206–7; but see his ”. In The Successors of Drake Vol. 29, London (57–8, where he is much clearer, and his Fighting Instructions 1530–1816 (NRS Vol., 1905), 9, where he translates en ala correctly
11. 1971. La galera en la navigacibn y el combate 29–61. Madrid Francisco-Felipe Olesa Muñido, (2 vols), II, 107–19. Ricardo Cerezo Martínez, ‘La táctica naval en el siglo XVI’, Revista de Historia Naval I (1983), No. 2,; idem., Las Armadas de Felipe II (Madrid, 1988), 141–4
12. Martin, Colin, and Parker, Geoffrey. 1988. The Spanish Armada London (166
13. 1974. Gunpowder and Galleys:Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century Cambridge The term seems to have been coined (or borrowed from Air Force terminology?) by J.F. Guilmartin, (91. Martin & Parker, Spanish Armada, 166, use it to translate en ala.
14. Carr Laughton, L. G., 1960. “ ‘Early Tudor Ship-Guns’, ed. Michael Lewis ”. In M.M. 245–16. XLVI 242–85, at p. Villain-Gandossi, Le Navire Médiéval, Pl. 76. Eric Rieth, ‘La question de la construction navale à franc-bord au Ponant’, Neptunia 160 (1985), 8–21, at p. 17. Frank Howard, Sailing Ships of War 1400–1860 (London, 1979), 12 & 26–7. Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion 1400–1700 (London, 1965), 80–1. R.A. Konstam, ‘Naval Artillery to 1550:Its Design, Evolution and Employment’ (St. Andrews M.Litt. thesis, 1987), 12
15. Instruction de toutes manieres de guerroyer,; tant par terre que par mer; & des choses y servantes 223–4. Of which the most important is Philip of Ravenstein, Duke of Cleves, (Paris, 1558) (but actually written c. 1505); the best modem edition of this work is Johanna K. Oudendijk, Een Bourgondisch Ridder over ten Oorlog ter Zee:Philips van Kleef als Leermeester van Karel V (Amsterdam, 1941). See also the Burgundian orders of 1474 printed by R.E.J. Weber, De Sein-boken voor Nederlandse Oorlogsvloten en Konvoien tot 1690 (Amsterdam, 1982), 23–7; J.C. de Jonge, Geschiedenis van bet Nederlandsche Zeewesen (Haarlem, 2nd edn, 1858–62,5 vols) I, 736–46; Antoine de Conflans, ‘Le livre des “faiz de la Marine et navigages”’, ed. Michel Mollat du Jourdin & Florence Chillaud-Toutée, 107e Congrès nationale des Sociétés savantes, Collection d'histoire maritime (Brest, 1982), 9–44; extracts from the Espejo de Navegantes of Alonso de Chaves, printed by Cesáreo Fernández Duro, Armada Española desde la unión de los Reinos de Castilla y de Aragón (Madrid, 1895–1903,9 vols) I, 379–91, and translated by Corbett, Fighting Instructions, 6–13; Jehan Bytharne, ‘Book of War by Sea and Land, Anno 1543’, in The Naval Miscellany I, ed. J.K. Laughton (NRS Vol. 20, 1902), 1–21; and the English orders wrongly attributed to Thomas Audley, printed by Corbett, Fighting Instructions, 14–17, and discussed by C.S.L. Davies, ‘Naval Discipline in the Early Sixteenth Century’, M.M., XLVIII (1962)
16. Bosscher, M., 1971. “ ‘Het Taktisch Gebruik van het Zeilschip’ ”. In Marineblad Vol. 8, 186 F.C. van Oosten & Ph. LXXXI 863–89. Kelly R. DeVries, ‘A 1445 reference to shipboard artillery’, Technology and Culture XXXI (1990), 818–29. Gillian Hutchinson, Medieval Ships and Shipping (Leicester, 1994), 156–8. Ian Friel, ‘Winds of Change? Ships and the Hundred Years War’, in Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War, ed. Anne Curry & Michael Hughes (Woodbridge, 1994), 183–93, at p. Howard, Ships of War, 38–9. Naval Accounts and Inventories of the Reign of Henry VII, 1485–8 and 1495–7; ed. M. Oppenheim (NRS Vol., 1896), 194–5,204–5, 261,264 & 274
17. La galera The best general treatments of galleys are Olesa Muñido, and Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys. See also idem., ‘The Early Provision of Artillery Armament on Mediterranean War Galleys’, M.M., LIX (1973), 257–80; Pierre Boyer, ‘Artillerie et tactique navale en Méditeranée au XVIe siècle’, Revue Historique des Armées No.174 (1989), 110–21; Fernández Duro, Armada Española I, 323–4; Padfield, Guns at Sea, 19; and Michel Mollat du Jourdin, ‘“Etre roi sur la mer”:Naissance d'une ambition’, in Histoire Militaire de la France I, Des origines à 1715, ed. Philippe Contamine (Paris, 1992), 279–301, at pp.294–5
18. Glete, Jan. 1993. Navies and Nations:Warships, Navies and State Building in Europe and America, 1500–1860 Stockholm (2 vols) I, 140
19. Letters and Papers relating to the War with France, 1512–1513 Vol. 10, Alfred Spont (NRS Vol., 1897), 121–33 & 159. Charles de la Roncière, Histoire de la marine française (Paris, 1899–1932, 6 vols) III, 104–6. The ‘Trade’ is the Raz du Four, the northern entrance into Brest Roads
20. Morton Nance, R., 1955. “ ‘The Ship of the Renaissance’ ”. In M.M. 291 XLI 180–92 & 281–98, at p. Laughton, ‘Early Tudor Ship Guns’, 251–4. Konstam, ‘Naval Artillery’, 144. Howard, Sailing Ships of War, 45
21. Toutes manieres de guerroyer 128
22. M.M. 440–60. Mollat du Jourdin, ‘“Etre roi sur la mer”’, 291. Laughton, ‘Early Tudor Ship Guns’, 250–1. Frank Howard, ‘Early Ship Guns’, LXXII (1986), 439–53 & LXXIII (1987), 49–55, at p. Norman MacDougall, ‘“The greattest scheip that ewer saillit in Ingland or France”:James IV's Great Michael‘, in Scotland and War AD 79–1918, ed. MacDougall (Edinburgh, 1991), 36
23. Laughton. 275–8. ‘Early Tudor Ship Guns’, 259, 264–6 &
24. Anderson, R. C., 1960. “ ‘The ”. In Mary Gonson,’ M.M. 199–204. XLVI
25. Toutes manieres de guerroyer 128
26. Laughton. “ ‘Early Tudor Ship Guns’, 250–6. Howard ”. In Sailing Ships of War 46 & 75. For. discussion of the armament of the Mary Rose I am much indebted to Dr Alex Hildred and her colleagues of the Mary Rose Trust
27. British Naval Documents 1204–1960 Vol. 131, 187 John B. Hattendorf et al (NRS Vol., 1993), 120–1. G.V. Scammell, ‘War at Sea under the Early Tudors:some Newcastle upon Tyne Evidence’, Archaeologia Aeliana 4th S.XXXVIII (1960), 73–97 & XXXIX (1961), 179–205, at p
28. Santa Caterina do Monte Sinai The best-known examples are the ships of the Anthony Roll, the rather fanciful ‘Embarkation of Henry VIII for the Field of the Cloth of Gold’ at Hampton Court, the Portuguese carrack of about 1520 at the National Maritime Museum, and all but one of the ships sketched by Thomas Pettyt off Calais about 1540 (British Library:Cott.MSS Aug.I.i.23). See also the hulk by Breughel reproduced by Nance, ‘Ship of the Renaissance’, Fig.22b
29. Howard. Sailing Ships of War 45
30. MacDougall. “ ‘James IV's ”. In Great Michael’.
31. Toutes manieres de guerroyer 128–9.
32. Corbett. Fighting Instructions 419–24. 20–4. La Roncière, Marine française III
33. Corbett. Drake, 157–8.
34. Kirsch, Peter. 1990. The Galleon:The Great Ships of the Armada Era London (translated from Die Galleoneny Coblenz, 1988), 3–6. Carla Rahn Phillips, Six Galleons for the King of Spain:Imperial Defense in the Seventeenth Century (Baltimore, 1986), 40–6; eadem, The Caravel and the Galleon’, in Cogs, Caravels and Galleons, ed. Richard W. Unger (London, 1994), 91–114, at pp.98–9. Jacques Bernard, Navires et Gens de Mer à Bordeaux (vers 1400-vers 1550) (Paris, 1968, 3 vols) I, 255–6. Papers relating to the Navy during the Spanish War; 1585–1587 ed. Julian S. Corbett (NRS Vol.11, 1898), 337–40. Parker, Military Revolution, 92
35. Taylor, A. H., 1950. “ ‘Carrack into Galleon’ ”. In M.M. 122–3. XXXVI 144–51. Francisco-Felipe Olesa Munido, ‘La Marina oceanica de los Austrias’, in El buque en la Armada Española, ed. Enrique Manera Regueyra (Madrid, 1981), 109–46, at
36. Glasgow, Tom. 1966. “ ‘H.M.S. Tiger’ ”. In North Carolina Historical Review 11–12. XLIII 115–21. David Loades, The Tudor Navy:An Administrative, Political and Military History (Aldershot, 1992), 95 & 195. Howard, Sailing Ships of War, 81–3. Kirsch, Galleon
37. Scammell. ‘War at Sea’, 180
38. Armada 1588–1988 Rodríguez-Salgado,162–3. Bjorn Landstrom, The Royal Warship Vasa, trans. Jeremy Franks (Stockholm, 1988), 9–10. Phillips, Six Galleons, 44; & ‘The Caravel and the Galleon, 98–106 & 114. Nance, ‘Ship of the Renaissance’, 294. José Luis Casada Soto, Los barcos españoles des siglo XVI y la Gran Armada de 1588 (Madrid, 1988), 193. Niels M. Probst, ‘The Introduction of Flushed-Planked Skin in Northern Europe—and the Elsinore Wreck’, in Crossroads in Ancient Shipbuilding:Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Roskilde 1991, ed. Christer Westerdahl (Oxbow Monograph 40, Oxford, 1994), 143–52. Corbett, Successors of Drake, 417 n.3 & 421. C. Martin, ‘The Ships of the Spanish Armada’, in God's Obvious Design:Papers for the Spanish Armada Symposium, Sligo, 1988, ed. P. Gallagher & D.W. Cruikshank (London, 1990), 44–68, at pp.45–8
39. Quinn, David B., and Ryan, A. N., 1983. England's Sea Empire, 1550–1642 London (65. James A. Williamson, Hawkins of Plymouth (London, 2nd edn, 1969), 250. Ronald L. Polliti, ‘The Elizabethan Navy Board:A Study in Administrative Evolution’ (Northwestern Ph.D. thesis, 1968), 225
40. Corbett. Drake, II179 Baker's sketches are in the ‘Fragments of Ancient Shipwrightry’, Pepys MS 2820 in the Pepysian Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge
41. Martin. ‘Ships of the Spanish Armada’, 52–6. Olesa Muñido. La galera, I268–81. Parker, Military Revolution, 87. The Naval Tracts of Sir William Monsoni ed. M. Oppenheim (NRS Vols 22–3, 43,45 & 47, 1902–14) IV, 101
42. The Principal Navigations Voyages Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation There are many narratives of actions fought in this style in Richard Hakluyt,(2nd edn of 1599–1600, as printed Glasgow, 1903–05,12 vols), e.g. VII, 103 (the Amity of London, 1592); X, 179 (the Content, 1591)
43. 1988. The Spanish Armada:The Experience of War in 1588 135–41. Oxford Olesa Muñido, ‘La marina oceanica de los Austrias’, 117. Felipe Fernández-Armesto
44. 1912. The Naval Miscellany II Vol. 40, 3–66. ‘Voyage of the Barbara to Brazil, Anno 1540’, ed. R.G. Marsden, in, ed. J.K. Laughton (NRS Vol., at p. 31
45. Armada Española, Fernández DuroI, 388; but John Smith, A Sea Grammar, ed. Kermit Goell (London, 1970), 79 unambiguously recommends shifting guns to empty ports on the engaged side
46. Salisbury, W., 1966. “ ‘Elizabethan Ships pictured on the Smerwick Map, 1580’ ”. In M.M. Tom Glasgow, jr & LII 157–65. The authors speculate as to why the artist should have omitted the broadsides which they take for granted must have been fired
47. Loades, David. 1995. “ ‘From the King's Ships to the Royal Navy 1500–1642’ in ”. In The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy 43 J.R. Hill (Oxford, 24–55, proposes this at p
48. Gross, Calvar. La Batalla del Mar Océano, I164–75. 147. New Light on Drake:A Collection of Documents relating to his Voyage of Circumnavigation 1577–1580, ed. Zelia Nuttall (Hakluyt Soc. 2nd.S.34, 1914), 157–8 8t
49. Naval Miscellany II ‘The Taking of the Madre de Dios, anno 1592’ ed. C.L. Kingsford, in Laughton, 85–121, at pp.107–8
50. Hakluyt. Principal Navigations, VII123
51. 1951. Further English Voyages to Spanish America 1583–1594 Irene A. Wright (Hakluyt Soc. 2nd S.99, 13
52. Gross, Calvar. 1775. La Batalla del Mar Ocèano, III 1684 &
53. 1972. The Last Voyage of Drake & Hawkins Vol. 4, 104–5. Kenneth R. Andrews (Hakluyt Soc. 2nd.S. 142, The superfluous ‘away’ does not occur in the same passage as printed in Thomas Maynarde, Sir Francis Drake his Voyage, 1595, ed. W.D. Cooley (Hakluyt Soc. Vol., 1849), 23
54. 1933. The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins James A. Williamson (London, 130. Monson, Naval Tracts IV, 43
55. Earle, Peter. 1992. The Last Fight of the Revenge 122–4. London
56. 1973. SeaFight’, M.M. 182 The opinion of Sir Arthur Gorgas:Tom Glasgow, jr, ‘Gorgas’, LIX 179–85, at p
57. Corbett. Fighting Instructions 20–3.
58. 1989. Felipe II y la Lucha por el Dominio del Mar 183–92. Madrid Magdalena de Pazzis Pi Corrales, (225–9. Cerezo Martínez, ‘La tactica naval’, 55–7. La Roncière, Marine Français IV
59. Corbett. Drake, I55 Fernández Duro, Armada Española I, 388. Cerezo Martínez, Las Armadas de Felipe II, 142–3. R.C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Baltic during the Sailing Ship Epoch, 1522–1850 (London, 1910), 6. Boteler's Dialogues, ed. W.G. Perrin (NRS Vol. 65, 1929), 315
60. Corbett. Drake, II207
61. The form of attack is clearly shown in the Adams charts drawn for Lord Howard.
62. 1894. State Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, anno 1588 J.K. Laughton (NRS Vols 1 & 2, II, 102
63. Lavery, Brian. 1985. “ The Revolution in Naval Tactics (1588–1653)’, in ”. In Les Marines de Guerre Européennes, XVII-XVIIIe siècles 180–1. Martine Acerra, José Merino & Jean Meyer (Paris, 167–74; a neglected and valuable article which sums up much of the argument of this paper. Brian Tunstall, Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail:The Evolution of Fighting Tactics 1650–1815, ed. Nicholas Tracy (London, 1990), 11. L.G. Carr Laughton, ‘Gunnery, Frigates and the Line of Battle’, M.M., XIV (1928), 339–63. Taylor, ‘Carrack into Galleon’, 149. Glasgow, ‘Gorgas’ SeaFighf
64. Corbett. Fighting Instructions, 42 quoting Raleigh's 1617 orders; cf. The Works of Sir Walter Ralegh…, ed. Thos. Birch (London, 1751, 2 vols) I, cii
65. Smith. Sea Grammar 77–8.
66. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues 296
67. Ralegh. Works, II94
68. Boteler's Dialogues 253 Perrin
69. Hakluyt. Principal Navigations, X242 Andrews, Last Voyage of Drake & Hawkins, 123–4 & 236–48 prints this with other narratives of this action. To ‘bear room’ is to bear up
70. 1883. The Voyage to Cadiz in 1625, being a Journal written by John GlanvUle Vol. 32, 16–17. Alexander B. Grosart (Camden Soc. N.S.Vol. Corbett, Fighting Instructions, 63–72. Tunstall, Naval Warfare12–13
71. Corbett. Drake, II260
72. Meyer, Jean. “ ‘La marine française de 1545 a 1715’, in Contamine ”. In Histoire Militaire de la France I 491 485–525, suggesting at p. that by the 1630s the English could fire one round every 2 minutes
73. Military Revolution The argument is set out in Parker, 93–5, and elaborated in Martin dc Parker, Spanish Armada, 199–211. It is also given by Colin Martin and David Lyon in Rodríguez-Salgado, Armada 1588–1988,173–6
74. Caruana, Adrian B., 1994. The History of English Sea Ordnance 1523–1875:Volume 1, The Age of Evolution, 1523–1715 146 (Rotherfield, Sussex, 172–80. John F. Guilmartin, jr, ‘Guns and Gunnery’, in Unger, Cogs, Caravels and Galleons, 139–50, at p. C.J.M. Martin, ‘A 16th century siege train:the battery ordnance of the 1588 Spanish Armada’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology XVII (1988), 57–73; idem., Full Fathom Five:Wrecks of the Spanish Armada (New York, 1975), 215–18. Spanish carriages are illustrated by Phillips, Six Galleons, 98, and Rodríguez-Salgado, Armada 1588–1988,179
75. Salisbury Manuscripts, Historical Manuscripts Commission,III, 345
76. La Armada Invencible Fernández Duro II No. 185
77. Martin and Parker. Spanish Armada 199–204. Geoffrey Parker, ‘The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England' (in this issue), assembles much more evidence on this point; I am indebted to Professor Parker for allowing me to consult this paper before publication
78. La Armada Invencible, 245–6. Fernández DuroII, 226; cf. La Armada Invencible:Documentes Procedentes del Archivo General de Simancas, ed. Enrique Herrera Oria (Valladolid, 1929)
79. Adams, Simon. 1991. “ ‘The Gran Armada:1988 and After’ ”. In History 242 LXXVI 238–49, at p
80. Monson. Naval Tracts, V147 The Life and Works of Sir Henry Mainwaring, ed. G.E. Manwaring & W.G. Perrin (NRS Vols 54 & 56, 1920–22) II, 119. Juan Martínez de Recalde to Philip II, 13 Dec. 1586, in Calvar Gross, La Batidla del Mar Océano, II, 462
81. Caruana. Sea Ordnance 25–6.
82. Laughton. Spanish Armada, II11
83. Martin and Parker. Spanish Armada 208
84. Laughton. 1988. “ ‘Gunnery, Frigates and the Line of Battle’, 339–41. R.A. Konstam, ‘16th century naval tactics and gunnery’ ”. In International Journal of Nautical Archaeology XVII 17–23. Kirsch, Galleon, 59. Padfieid, Guns at Sea,62 & 69
85. Lavery, Brian. 1978. The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600–1815 London (132
86. Bourne, William. 1587. The Arte of Shooting in Great Ordnance London (52 & 57. Mainwaring, Works II, 110. Smith, Sea Grammar, 85 (but note that Smith borrows much from Mainwaring)
87. The Life of the Icelander Jón Ólafsson… 48–9. It is shown in Van Wieringen's painting of the action off Gibraltar in 1602 (in the Scheepvaart Museum, Amsterdam), and in a Van de Velde sketch of about 1664 (National Maritime Museum No. 106). There is a personal account in, ed. Bertha S. Phillpotts (Hakluyt Soc. 2nd S.Vols 53 & 68,1923–31) II
88. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues the editor preferred the spelling under which the book was first printed to that invariably used by the author himself
89. Naval Tracts, V, 148
90. Naval Tracts, IV, 95; cf. IV, 61, proposing that idlers be trained ‘to the labour in hauling, and doing other helps to the gunner about his ordnance’
91. Lavery, Brian. 1988. The Colonial Merchantman Susan Constant London (38, quoting Bourne's Inventions or Devices, which he dates to 1578. English Maritime Books printed before 1801, ed. Thomas R. Adams & David W. Waters (Providence R.I. & Greenwich, 1995), 21, lists a 1st edn of c.1577, of which no copy is traced, and a 2nd of 1590
92. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues 90 & 303
93. Padfield. Guns at Sea 67 Taylor, ‘Galleon into Ship of the Line’, 268
94. Caruana. Sea Ordnance 184–7.
95. Monson. Naval Tracts, IV53–4. 33. Mainwaring, Works II, 184. Bourne, Great Ordnance
96. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues 259 Hawkins, Observations, 130. The ‘bowing’ of guns is clearly visible in contemporary illustrations
97. Monson. V147 Bourne, Great Ordnance, 57. But Hawkins, Observations, 134, mentions a Spanish gunner killed traversing his piece in action
98. Mainwaring. II200
99. Loades. Tudor Navy 303–6. 97. M. Oppenheim, A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy from 1509 to 1660… (London, 1896), 56. Konstam, ‘Naval tactics and gunnery’, 18. Hattendorf, British Naval Documents, 103–6. Corbett, Spanish War, 270–2. Charles Derrick, Memoirs of the Rise and Progress of the Royal Navy (London, 1806), 14–15, 19, 25 &
100. Corbett. Spanish War 265
101. Corbett. II324–5. 288–9. Complements in 1588 are in Laughton, Spanish Armada II
102. Monson. IV53–8. 91. Mainwaring, Works I, 54–5. John Brand, ‘The Names of his Majesties Shipps…’, Archaeologia XV (1806)
103. 1983. Trinity House of Deptford Transactions, 1609–35 Vol. 19, 115–16. G.G. Harris (London Record Soc. Vol
104. Monson. Naval Tracts, II 243 & IV, 224
105. Perrin. Botelerys Dialogues 293
106. Monson. Naval Tracts, II180
107. 1868. Journal of a Voyage into the Mediterranean by Sir Kenelm Digby, A.D. 1628 Vol. 96, John Bruce (Camden Soc. Vol. 12
108. Caruana. Sea Ordnance 25
109. Bull, S. B., 1988. “ 107–8. N.A.M. Rodger, ‘Elizabethan Naval Gunnery’ ”. In 107–8. N.A.M. Rodger, ‘Elizabethan Naval Gunnery’ 1988–33. ‘The Furie of the Ordnance:England's Guns and Gunners by Land 1600–1650’ (Wales Ph.D. thesis, LXI (1975), 353–4. Caruana, English Sea Ordnance, 199. Michael Lewis, ‘Armada Guns. A Comparative Study of English and Spanish Armaments’. XXVIII (1942), 41–73, 104–47, 231–45 & 259–90; XXIX (1943), 3–39, 100–21, 163–78 & 203–31; at XXIX, 112–14. W.G. Perrin, ‘Early Naval Ordnance’, VI (1920), 51–3. Laughton, Spanish Armada I, 339. Corbett, Spanish War
110. English Privateering Voyages to the West Indies 1588–1595 72–72. K.R. Andrews (Hakluyt Soc. 2nd.S. CXI, 1959), 74–7 & 231. Harris, Trinity House Transactions, 85. Andrews, Last Voyage of Drake and Hawkins
111. Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes (Glasgow, 1905–07, 20 vols) XVI, 16. The common metaphor of a ‘peal’ (implying that the guns were fired in succession) is worth noting
112. Laughton. Spanish Armada, II11 The Vanguard's designed armament in 1586 (Corbett, Spanish War, 312) and her actual armament in 1596 (Caruana, English Sea Ordnance, 35) differ, but the total is the same
113. Letters and Papers relating to the First Dutch War 21–21. S.R. Gardiner & C.T. Atkinson (NRS Vols. 13,17,30,37,41 & 66,1899–1930) I
114. Principal Navigations, Hakluyt,VII, 63
115. Martin and Parker. Spanish Armada 207
116. 1909. The English Factories in India 1624–1629 51–51. William Foster (Oxford
117. Foster. English Factories 81
118. Scammell, G. V., 1983. The Engish Chartered Trading Companies and the Sea (National Maritime Museum, n.d. []), 26
119. 1932. High Court of Admiralty Examinations 1637–1638 Dorothy O. Shilton & Richard Holworthy (London, 272 & 279
120. Works, Mainwaring,II, 131
121. Lewis. ‘Armada Guns’, XXVIII, 273
122. Wright. Further English Voyages 44
123. Goodman, David. 1988. Power and Penury:Government, Technology and Science in Philip IPs Spain Cambridge (108. Oppenheim, Administration of the Royal Navy, 156
124. Works, Mainwaring,II, 184
125. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues 259
126. Monson. Naval Tracts, II 163; cf. Corbett, Successors of Drake, 369–77, & Sir Richard Leveson's account in Historical Manuscripts Commission, Salisbury Manuscripts XII, 183–4. The Lord Admiral had specifically warned Leveson not to risk the Queen's ships within reach of the Spanish galleys:Salisbury Manuscripts XII, 162. Merchantmen which fought off galleys were also much celebrated:Naval Songs and Ballads, ed. C.H. Firth (Navy Records Society Vol. 33, 1908), XX
127. Gray, Randal. 1978. “ ‘Spinola's Galleys in the Narrow Seas, 1599–1603’ ”. In M.M. LXIV 71–83. L.Th. Lehmann, Galleys in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, 1984), 12–14 & 50–86; idem., ‘Dutch Galleys’, LXV (1979), 63
128. Works, 131–2. Mainwaring,II
129. Strachan, Michael. 1969. “ ‘Sampson's Fight with Maltese Galleys, 1628’ ”. In M.M. 286 LV 281–9, at p
130. Parker. Military Revolution 94 Peter Padfield, Tide of Empires:Decisive Naval Campaigns in the Rise of the West (London, 1979–82, 2 vols) I, 42–53; see also his Guns at Sea, 25–7. Maltby, ‘Evolution of Sailing-Ship Tactics’, 53, explicitly claims this as an example of the line of battle
131. Toutes manieres de guerroyer 139
132. 1869. The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama…from the Lendas da India of Gaspar Correa Vol. 42, 366–70. H.E.J. Stanley (Hakluyt Soc. Vol
133. I am indebted to Mr Richard Barker for this point.
134. Parker. Military Revolution, 9445–82. citing Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, 89–93. The same interpretation is offered by Quinn & Ryan, England's Sea Empire, 61–2; & Taylor, ‘Carrack into Galleon’, 148. Cf. J.D. Alsop, ‘The Career of William Towerson, Guinea Trader’, International Journal of Maritime History IV (1992)
135. Principal Navigations, Hakluyt,VI, 2213
136. Principal Navigations, Hakluyt,VI, 222
137. England's Sea Empire Cited as an example of an early gunnery action by Quinn & Ryan, 63; & Taylor, ‘Carrack into Galleon’, 148
138. Principal Navigations, 281–3. Hakluyt,VI
139. Calendar of State Papers Spanish, II, 480, rendering British Library:Cott.MSS Galba C.5 f.32
140. Corbett. Drake, 1137
141. Spanish Armada I am indebted to my brother Mr A.D. A. Rodger and my sister-in-law Sra. Leticia Martínez Aguilar for advice on the language of this document. Fernández-Armesto, 140 identifies the spy as a Portuguese named Fogaza
142. Monson. Naval Tracts, II 158 & V, 186. Cf. the sources quoted at notes 65–9 above
143. Smith. Sea Grammar 72
144. Monson. Naval Tracts, IV 94; cf. Lavery, ‘Revolution in Naval Tactics’, 169
145. Perrin. Boteler's Dialogues Vol. 7, 376–7. 291. John Hollond, Two Discourses of the Navy, 1638 and 1659, ed. J. R. Tanner (NRS Vol., 1896)
146. Boxer, C. R., 1959. “ ‘The Action between Pater and Oquendo, 12 September 1631’ ”. In M.M. 192 XLV 179–99, at pp.190–1. Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes V, 245. Christopher Lloyd, English Corsairs on the Barbary Coast (London, 1981), 38. Calvin F. Senning, ‘Piracy, Politics and Plunder under James I:The Voyage of the Pearl and its Aftermath, 1611–1615’, Huntington Library Quarterly XLVI (1983), 187–222, at p
147. 1935. 434; Lindsay's of 1635 in Monson. Naval Tracts, Eg. Buckingham's of 1626, cited by Norman Clayton, ‘Naval Administration, 1603- 1628’ (Leeds Ph.D. thesis, IV, 8–9 & Tunstall, Naval Warfare, 13–16; Northumberland's of 1636 in, 16
148. Monson. Naval Tracts, IV91–8.
149. Lavery. 1991. “ ‘Revolution in Naval Tactics’, 170. Andrew Thrush, ‘In Pursuit of the Frigate, 1603–40’ ”. In Historical Research 40–58. LXIV 29–45. Laughton, ‘Gunnery, Frigates and the Line of Battle’, 361. Johan E. Elias, De Vlootbouw in Nederland in de eerste Helft der 17e Eeuw, 1596–1655 (Amsterdam, 1933)
150. Baumber, M. L., 1967. 320–1. ‘The Navy during the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth, 1642–1651’ (Manchester M.A. thesis
151. Gardiner and Atkinson. First Dutch War, II105–6.
152. Tunstall. Naval Warfare 569–80. 16–37. Laughton, ‘Gunnery, Frigates and the Line of Battle’, 344. Taylor, ‘Galleon into Ship of the Line’, 271–4. Padfield, Guns at Sea, 71–4. Weber, De Seinboken, 108; idem ‘The Introduction of the Single Line ahead as a Battle Formation by the Dutch 1665–1666’, M.M., LXXIII (1987), 5–19. Julian S. Corbett, England in the Mediterranean:A Study of the Rise and Influence of British Power within the Straits, 1603–1713 (London, 2nd edn 1917, 2 vols) II
153. Tunstall. Naval Warfare 25 Rodger, ‘Elizabethan Naval Gunnery’, 354