The regulation of climate engineering

Law, Innovation and Technology

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 113-136

  Reynolds, Jesse ^a  

^a TILBURG UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85015550152     PISSN: 17579961     EISSN: 1757997X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5235/175799611796399821     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (HM Treasury, 2006) is generally considered the most comprehensive economic analysis of climate change.
2. See eg Chris D Thomas et al, ‘Extinction Risk from Climate Change’ (2004) 427 Nature 145.
3. Compare conclusions of the four Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), issued in 1990, 1995, 2001 and 2007.
4. TJ Blasing, ‘Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations’ (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, updated February 2011), http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/current_ghg.html (accessed 7 June 2011).
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8. Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ‘Summary for Policymakers’ in Nebojsa Nakicenovic and Rob Swart (eds), Emissions Scenarios (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
9. Annie Petsonk, ‘Article 2 of the UNFCCC: Historical Origins, Recent Interpretations’ (2005) 73 Climatic Change 195;
10. Chris Shaw, ‘The Dangerous Limits of Dangerous Limits: Climate Change and the Precautionary Principle’ (2009) 57 Sociological Review 103.
11. Stephen M Gardiner, ‘Ethics and Climate Change: An Introduction’ (2010) 1 Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climatic Change 54.
12. Roger Pielke et al, ‘Climate Change 2007: Lifting the Taboo on Adaptation’ (2007) 445 Nature 597.
13. William Daniel Davis, ‘What Does “Green” Mean?: Anthropogenic Climate Change, Geoengineering, and International Environmental Law’ (2009) 43 Georgia Law Review 901.
14. Scott Barrett, ‘The Incredible Economics of Geoengineering’ (2008)
15. Environmental and Resource Economics 45, 46.
16. The Asilomar International Conference on Climate Intervention Technologies is described below, at text to nn 102-6.
17. Svante Arrhenius, ‘On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground’ (1896) 41 Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 237;
18. Nils Ekholm, ‘On the Variations of the Climate of the Geological and Historical Past and their Causes’ (1901) 27 Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 1;
19. Svante Arrhenius, Worlds in the Making: The Evolution of the Universe (Harper, 1908).
20. President’s Science Advisory Committee, Restoring the Quality of Our Environment (1965).
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25. Michael MacCracken, ‘Geoengineering: Worthy of Cautious Evaluation?' (2006) 77 Climatic Change 235;
26. Eli Kintisch, Hack the Planet: Science’s Best Hope-or Worst Nightmare-for Averting Climate Catastrophe (John Wiley & Sons, 2010) 197-9.
27. Paul Crutzen, ‘Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?' (2006) 77 Climatic Change 211;
28. Ralph Cicerone, ‘Geoengineering: Encouraging Research and Overseeing Implementation’ (2006) 77 Climatic Change 221.
29. Royal Society, Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty (2009);
30. America’s Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change, Advancing the Science of Climate Change (National Academies Press, 2010);
31. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Geo-Engineering: Giving Us the Time to Act? (2009);
32. Science and Technology Committee, The Regulation of Geoengineering (HC 2009-10);
33. Rep Bart Gordon, Engineering the Climate: Research Needs and Strategies for International Collaboration (2010);
34. American Meteorological Society Council, AMS Policy Statement on Geoengineering the Climate System (2009);
35. American Geophysical Union Council, Position Statement: Geoengineering the Climate System(2009).
36. ‘Implications and Risks of Engineering Solar Radiation to Limit Climate Change’, http://implicc.zmaw.de (accessed 7 June 2011).
37. The National Environment Research Council and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Councils supported a public dialogue on geoengineering and are now funding two multiuniversity research teams. NERC Public Dialogue on Geoengineering Steering Group, Experiment Earth? Report on a Public Dialogue on Geoengineering (2010);
38. ‘Integrated Assessment of Geoengineering Proposals’, http://iagp.ac.uk (accessed 7 June 2011);
39. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, ‘Details of Grant Ep/I01473x/1' (19 November 2010), http://gow.epsrc.ac.uk/ViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/I01473X/1 (accessed 7 June 2011);
40. ‘Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research’, http://people.ucalgary.ca/~keith/FICER.html (accessed 7 June 2011);
41. Eli Kintisch, ‘Bill Gates Funding Geoengineering Research’ ScienceInsider, 26 January 2010, http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/01/bill-gates-fund.html (accessed 7 June 2011).
42. James Kanter, ‘Cash Prize for Environ-mental Help Goes Unawarded’ New York Times, 21 November 2010.
43. Alister Doyle, ‘Futuristic Climate Schemes to Get UN Hearing’ Reuters, 27 October 2010;
44. Co-Chairs of Working Groups I, II and III, Proposal for an IPCC Expert Meeting on Geoengineering (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2010).
45. Rik Leemans et al, ‘Mitigation: Cross-Sectoral and Other Issues’ in Robert T Watson, MC Zinyowera and Richard H Moss (eds), Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses: Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 1995) 811-13;
46. Pekka Kauppi et al, ‘Technological and Economic Potential of Options to Enhance, Maintain, and Manage Biological Carbon Reservoirs and Geo-Engineering’ in Bert Metz et al (eds), Climate Change 2001: Mitigation:Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2001) 332-4;
47. Terry Barker et al, ‘Mitigation from a Cross-Sectoral Perspective’ in Bert Metz et al (eds), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation: Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 624-5.
48. The Royal Society’s Geoengineering the Climate (n 21)
49. Naomi E Vaughan and Timothy M Lenton, ‘A Review of Climate Geoengineering Proposals’ (2011) Climatic Change (forthcoming); published online 22 March 2011 at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0027-7.
50. David W Keith, ‘Why Capture CO2 from the Atmosphere?' (2009) 325 Science 1654;
51. Ken O Buesseler et al, ‘Ocean Iron Fertilization-Moving Forward in a Sea f Uncertainty’ (2008) 319 Science 162;
52. Peter Köhler, Jens Hartmann and Dieter A Wolf-Gladrow, ‘Geoengineering Potential of Artificially Enhanced Silicate Weathering of Olivine’ (2010) 107 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 20228.
53. Crutzen (n 20);
54. John Latham et al, ‘Global Temperature Stabilization via Controlled Albedo Enhancement of Low-Level Maritime Clouds’ (2008) 366 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 3969;
55. Russell Seitz, ‘Bright Water: Hydrosols, Water Conservation and Climate Change’ (2011) 105 Climatic Change 365.
56. William D Nordhaus and Joseph Boyer, Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming (MIT Press, 2003)
57. ‘The economics of geoengineering are-there is no better word for it-incredible.' Barrett (n 11) 49.
58. ‘[B]iological communities under acidified seawater conditions are less diverse and calcifying species absent … Ocean acidification is irreversible on timescales of at least tens of thousands of years.' Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Scientific Synthesis of the Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity, Technical Series No 46 (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009) 9.
59. Alan Robock, Luke Oman and Georgiy L Stenchikov, ‘Regional Climate Responses to Geoengineering with Tropical and Arctic SO2 Injections’ (2008) 113 Journal of Geophysical Research D16101;
60. Gabriele C Hegerl and Susan Solomon, ‘Risks of Climate Engineering’ (2009) 325 Science 955.
61. Lianhong Gu et al, ‘Response of a Deciduous Forest to the Mount Pinatubo Eruption: Enhanced Photosynthesis’ (2003) 299 Science 2035.
62. Peter Braesicke, Olaf Morgenstern and John Pyle, ‘Might Dimming the Sun Change Atmospheric ENSO Teleconnections as We Know Them?' (2011) 12 Atmospheric Sciences Letters 184.
63. P Heckendorn et al, ‘The Impact of Geoengineering Aerosols on Stratospheric Temperature and Ozone’ (2009) 4 Environmental Research Letters 045108.
64. Jason J Blackstock et al, Climate Engineering Responses to Climate Emergencies (Novim, 2009).
65. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), Art 3.
66. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), Arts 3.1, 4 (throughout), 7.2(d), 12.1(a), and 12.1(b).
67. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), Art 1.8;
68. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1997), Art 3.3.
69. These field trials are reviewed in Aaron Strong, John J Cullen and Sallie W Chisholm, ‘Ocean Fertilization:Science, Policy, and Commerce’ (2009) 22 Oceanography 236.
70. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972), Art 3.1(b) and Annex 2; its 1996 Protocol, Art 1.4.2 and Annex 1.
71. Aaron Strong et al, ‘Ocean Fertilization: Time to Move On’ (2009) 461 Nature 347.
72. Contracting parties to the London Convention and contracting parties to the London Protocol, Resolution LC-LP.1 on the Regulation of Ocean Fertilization (2008).
73. Contracting parties to the London Convention and contracting parties to the London Protocol, Resolution LC-LP.2 on the Assessment Framework for Scientific Research Involving Ocean Fertilization (2010).
74. Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), Art 8(h).
75. Decisions Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its Ninth Meeting (2008), IX/16(C)4.
76. Report of the Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2010), X/33(w).
77. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (1977), Arts II and III.
78. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979), Art 1(b).
79. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent (1985);
80. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions (1994).
81. The amount necessary is in the order of 5 million metric tons (teragrams) per year. See eg Crutzen (n 20). Current global anthropogenic sulfur emissions are approximately 58 metric tons per year. SJ Smith et al, ‘Anthropogenic Sulfur Dioxide Emissions: 1850-2005' (2011) 11 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 1101.
82. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992), principles 2, 8, 19;
83. Heckendorn et al (n 33).
84. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987).
85. Royal Society (n 21) xi.
86. ‘By the time undesirable consequences are discovered, however, the technology is often so much part of the whole economics and social fabric that its control is extremely difficult. This is the dilemma of control. When change is easy, the need for it cannot be foreseen; when the need for change is apparent, change has become expensive, difficult and time consuming.' David Collingridge, The Social Control of Technology (St Martin, 1980) 11.
87. Memorandum Submitted by the Royal Society to the UK House of Commons Science and Technology Committee (2009), para 13.
88. Steve Rayner, ‘The Geoengineering Paradox’ (2010) 1 The Geoengineering Quarterly 7, www.oxfordgeoengin eering.org/pdfs/geoengineering_quarterly_first_edition.pdf (accessed 7 June 2011).
89. Johannes Lehmann, John Gaunt and Marco Rondon, ‘Bio-Char Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems: A Review’ (2006) 11 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 395;
90. Committee on Science, Engineering and Public Policy (n 17).
91. Contracting parties to the London Convention and contracting parties to the London Protocol (n 42 and n 43).
92. Doug WR Wallace et al, Ocean Fertilization: A Scientific Summary for Policy Makers (IOC/BRO/2010/2, 2010).
93. Strong et al (n 41);
94. Mary W Silver et al, ‘Toxic Diatoms and Domoic Acid in Natural and Iron Enriched Waters of the Oceanic Pacific’ (2010) 107 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 20762.
95. Stephen H Schneider, ‘Earth Systems Engineering and Management’ (2001) 409 Nature 417;
96. Mark Lawrence, ‘The Geoengineering Dilemma: To Speak or Not to Speak’ (2006) 77 Climatic Change 245.
97. David W Keith, ‘Geoengineering the Climate: History and Prospect’ (2000) 25 Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 245
98. Martin Bunzl, ‘Researching Geoengineering: Should Not or Could Not?' (2009) 4 Environmental Research Letters 045104.
99. TML Wigley, ‘A Combined Mitigation/Geoengineering Approach to Climate Stabilization’ (2008) 314 Science 452.
100. Edward Teller, Roderick Hyde and Lowell Wood, ‘Active Climate Stabilization: Practical Physics-Based Approaches to Prevention of Climate Change’, paper delivered at the National Academy of Engineering Symposium, Washington, DC, 23-24 April 2002;
101. Alan Carlin, ‘Global Climate Change Control: Is there a Better Strategy than Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions?' (2007) 155 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1401;
102. Barrett (n 11).
103. ‘[t]here’s a slippery slope from laboratory research to large-scale deployment’. Ken Caldeira, ‘Has the Time Come for Geoengineering?' (2008) Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/roundtables/has-the-time-come-geoengineering (accessed 7 June 2011).
104. David G Victor et al, ‘The Geoengineering Option: A Last Resort against Global Warming?' (2009) 88 Foreign Affairs 64, 72.
105. Dale Jamieson, ‘Ethics and Intentional Climate Change’ (1996) 33 Climatic Change 323.
106. Silvio O Funtowicz and Jerome R Ravetz, ‘Science for the Post-Normal Age’ (1993) 25 Futures 739.
107. Mike Hulme, Why We Disagree about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, Inaction and Opportunity (Cambridge University Press, 2009) 78-81.
108. John D Graham and Jonathan Baert Wiener (eds), Risk vs Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment (Harvard University Press, 1995).
109. Andy Stirling, ‘Risk, Uncertainty and Precaution: Some Instrumental Implications from the Social Sciences’ in Frans Berkhout, Melissa Leach and Ian Scoones (eds), Negotiating Environmental Change: New Perspectives from Social Science (Edward Elgar, 2003).
110. Roger Brownsword, Rights, Regulation, and the Technological Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2008).
111. Michael MacCracken et al, The Asilomar Conference Recommendations on Principles for Research into Climate Engineering Techniques (Climate Institute, 2010) 32;
112. Stephen Brick, Biochar: Assessing the Promise and Risks to Guide US Policy (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2010).
113. For groups opposed to climate engineering, see two efforts led by the ETC Group: Open Letter to the Climate Response Fund and the Scientific Organizing Committee (ETC Group, 2010);
114. Hands Off Mother Earth, ‘Organisations’, www.handsoffmotherearth.org/organisations (accessed 7 June 2011). 75
115. David Adam, ‘Extreme and Risky Action the Only Way to Tackle Global Warming, Say Scientists’ The Guardian, 1 September 2008;
116. Doug Parr, ‘Geo-Engineering is No Solution to Climate Change’ The Guardian, 1 September 2009.
117. American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, ‘Research Areas: Geoengineering’, www.aei.org/yra/100009 (accessed 7 June 2011).
118. Cquestrate, ‘About Us’, www.cquestrate.com/about-us (accessed 7 June 2011).
119. David Adam, ‘Royal Society Tells Exxon: Stop Funding Climate Change Denial’ The Guardian, 20 September 2006.
120. The only significant investigation into public opinion on climate engineering is the NERC Public Dialogue on Geoengineering Steering Group (n 22).
121. Lennart Bengtsson, ‘Geo-Engineering to Confine Climate Change: Is it at all Feasible?' (2006) 77 Climatic Change 229, 232.
122. H Damon Matthews and Ken Caldeira, ‘Transient Climate-Carbon Simulations of Planetary Geoengineering’ (2007) 104 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 9949.
123. Alan Robock et al, ‘A Test for Geoengineering?' (2010) 327 Science 530, 530.
124. Alan Robock, '20 Reasons why Geoengineering may be a Bad Idea’ (2008) 64 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 14.
125. David R Morrow, Robert E Kopp and Michael Oppenheimer, ‘Toward Ethical Norms and Institutions for Climate Engineering Research’ (2009) 4 Environmental Research Letters 045106, 3.
126. Pablo Suarez, Jason J Blackstock and Maarten van Aalst, ‘Towards a People-Centered Framework for Geoengineering Governance: A Humanitarian Perspective’ (2010) 1 The Geoengineering Quarterly 2.
127. Alan Robock, ‘Bubble, Bubble, Toil and Trouble’ (2011) 105 Climatic Change 383.
128. David W Keith, Edward Parson and M Granger Morgan, ‘Research on Global Sun Block Needed Now’ (2010) 463 Nature 426, 427.
129. Ken Caldeira and David W Keith, ‘The Need for Climate Engineering Research’ (2010) 27 Issues in Science and Technology, www.issues.org/27.1/caldeira.html (accessed 7 June 2011).
130. Ben Webster, ‘Bill Gates Pays for “Artificial” Clouds to Beat Greenhouse Gases’ The Times, 8 May 2010.
131. Y Izrael et al, ‘Field Studies of a Geo-Engineering Method of Maintaining a Modern Climate with Aerosol Particles’ (2009) 34 Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 635.
132. Royal Society (n 21) xii.
133. United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948), Art 27.
134. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000), Art 13.
135. John A Robertson, ‘The Scientist’s Rights to Research: A Constitutional Analysis’ (1977) 51 Southern California Law Review 1203, 1206.
136. R Alta Charo, ‘Prepared Statement of R Alta Charo’ in Cloning:A Risk to Women? Hearing before the Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space of the Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, United States Senate (US Government Printing Office, 2002) 29, which similarly asserts a right to research and concedes that ‘even protected activities are subject to reasonable regulation to avoid interfering with the rights of others’.
137. J Weinstein, ‘Democracy, Individual Rights and the Regulation of Science’ (2009) 15 Science and Engineering Ethics 407.
138. Committee on Advances in Technology and the Prevention of their Application to Next Generation Biowarfare Threats, Globalization, Biosecurity, and the Future of the Life Sciences (National Academies Press, 2006).
139. Steven Rose, ‘Darwin 200: Should Scientists Study Race and IQ? No: Science and Society Do Not Benefit’ (2009) 457 Nature 786;
140. Stephen Ceci and Wendy M Williams, ‘Darwin 200: Should Scientists Study Race and IQ? Yes: The Scientific Truth Must be Pursued’ (2009) 457 Nature 788.
141. Stephen M Gardiner et al (eds), Climate Ethics: Essential Readings (Oxford University Press, 2010).
142. Claire L Parkinson, Coming Climate Crisis? Consider the Past, Beware the Big Fix (Rowman & Littlefield, 2010).
143. David G Victor, ‘On the Regulation of Geoengineering’ (2008) 24 Oxford Review of Economic Policy 322;
144. Keith et al (n 84).
145. Marcia Barinaga, ‘Asilomar Revisited:Lessons for Today?' (2000) 287 Science 1584.
146. Joe Romm, ‘Exclusive: Chief Sponsor of Landmark Climate Manipulation Conference Maintains Close Financial Ties to Controversial Geo-Engineering Company’, Climate Progress, 18 March 2010, http://climateprogress.org (accessed 7 June 2011);
147. ETC Group (n 74).
148. Michael MacCracken et al, Asilomar Conference Statement (2010), reprinted as Appendix B in MacCracken et al (n 74).
149. Margaret Leinen, ‘The Asilomar International Conference on Climate Intervention Technologies:Background and Overview’ (2011) 4 Stanford Journal of Law, Science & Policy 1.
150. ‘Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative’ (n 74).
151. Seth Borenstein, ‘Obama Looks at Climate Engineering’ Associated Press, 8 April 2009.
152. Robert Baldwin, Rules and Government (Clarendon, 1995).
153. Robock (n 81);
154. Clive Hamilton, ‘An Evil Atmosphere is Forming around Geoengineering’ New Scientist, 21 July 2010.
155. Robock et al (n 80).
156. International Whaling Commission, ‘Scientific Permit Whaling’, http://iwcoffice.org/conservation/permits.htm (accessed 14 June 2011).
157. Richard E Ashcroft and Adrian M Viens, ‘Clinical Trials’ in Peter A Singer and Adrian M Viens (eds), Cambridge Textbook of Bioethics (Cambridge University Press, 2008).
158. Nancy MP King and Larry R Churchill, ‘Clinical Research and the Physician-Patient Relationship: The Dual Roles of Physician and Researcher’ in Singer and Viens
159. Nancy MP King and Larry R Churchill, ‘Clinical Research and the Physician-Patient Relationship: The Dual Roles of Physician and Researcher’ in Singer and Viens
160. Madison Powers, ‘Theories of Justice in the Context of Research’ in Jeffrey P Kahn, Anna C Mastroianni and Jeremy Sugarman (eds), Beyond Consent:Seeking Justice in Research (Oxford University Press, 1998).
161. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2000);
162. Regulation on Transboundary Movements of Genetically Modified Organisms (EC, No 1946/2003).
163. Contracting parties to the London Convention and contracting parties to the London Protocol (n 43).
164. David Santillo and Paul Johnston, ‘Governance of Geoengineering Research Cannot be Left to Voluntary Codes of Conduct’ (2010) 1 The Geoengineering Quarterly 4;
165. Till Markus, ‘Regulating Scientific Ocean Fertilization Experiments under the Law of the Sea’, paper delivered at the Bremen Environmental Law Conference, ‘The Law on Climate Engineering’, Bremen, 17 February 2011.
166. Depending on interpretations of the role and language of the CBD, such a moratorium may already exist. See text to nn 44-47.