The study of slums as social and physical constructs: Challenges and emerging research opportunities

Regional Studies, Regional Science

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 399-419

  Mahabir, Ron ^a   Crooks, Andrew ^a   Croitoru, Arie ^a   Agouris, Peggy ^a  

^a GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Crowdsourced information; Informal settlements; Modeling; Remote sensing; Slums; Socio economic

Indexed keywords

EID: 85015372935     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21681376     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/21681376.2016.1229130     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Abramo, P. (2009). Social innovation, reciprocity and the monetization of territory in informal settlements in Latin American cities. In D. MacCallum, F. Moulaert, J. Hillier, & S. Vicari (Eds.), Social innovation and territorial development (pp. 115–130). Farnham, England: Ashgate.
2. Ahmed, N., Brookins, O. T., & Ali, S. (2011). Poverty, corruption and fatalism: A case study of slum areas of Karachi, Pakistan. 3rd South Asian International Conference, Lahore, Pakistan, Retrieved from http://saicon2011.ciitlahore.edu.pk/Economics/11-1259%20shahid%20ali.pdf.
3. Ajibade, I., & McBean, G. (2014). Climate extremes and housing rights: A political ecology of impacts, early warning and adaptation constraints in Lagos slum communities. Geoforum, 55, 76–86. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.05.005.
4. Ali, M. H., & Sulaiman, M. S. (2006). The causes and consequences of the informal settlements in Zanzibar. XXIII Congress of the International Federation of Surveyors, Munich, Germany, Retrieved from https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2006/papers/ts35/ts35_01_ali_sulaiman_0320.pdf.
5. Alonso, W. (1964). Location and land use. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
6. Arimah, B. C. (2001). Slums as expressions of social exclusion: Explaining the prevalence of slums in African countries. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlement Programme.
7. Asner, G. (2001). Cloud cover in Landsat observations of the Brazilian Amazon. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22, 3855–3862. doi:10.1080/01431160010006926.
8. Augustijn-Beckers, E., Flacke, J., & Retsios, B. (2011). Simulating informal settlement growth in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: An agent-based housing model. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 35, 93–103. doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2011.01.001.
9. Babalola, Y. (2009). Makoko residents and their unwanted guest, Retrieved June 10, 2015, from http://allafrica.com/stories/200905010060.html.
10. Barnhardt, S., Field, E., & Pande, R. (2014). Moving to opportunity or isolation? Network effects of a slum relocation program in India. Indian Institute of Management, Research and Publication Department, Working Paper, Ahmedabad, India, 2014-11-01.
11. Barros, J. (2012). Exploring urban dynamics in Latin American cities using an agent-based simulation approach. In A. Heppenstall, A. T. Crooks, L. M. See, & M. Batty (Eds.), Agent-Based models of geographical systems (pp. 571–589). New York, NY: Springer.
12. Batty, M. (2009). Urban modelling. In R. Kitchin & N. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 51–58). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
13. Benjamin, S. (2004). Urban land transformation for pro-poor economies. Geoforum, 35, 177–187. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.08.004.
14. Black, R., Bennett, S. R. G., Thomas, S. M., & Beddington, J. R. (2011). Climate change: Migration as adaptation. Nature, 478, 447–449. doi:10.1038/478477a.
15. Booth, C. (1903). Life and labour of the people in London. London, UK: Macmillan and Company Limited.
16. Brugmann, J. (2010). Welcome to the urban revolution: How cities are changing the World. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.
17. Brugmann, J. (2013). The making of Dharavi’s city system. In J. Campana (Ed.), Dharavi: The city within (pp. 41–54). New York, NY: Harper Collins.
18. Burgess, E. W. (1925). The growth of the city: An introduction to a research project. In R. E. Park, E. W. Burgess, & R. D. McKenzie (Eds.), The city (pp. 47–62). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
19. Chatterjee, P. (2004). The politics of the governed: Reflections on popular politics in most of the World. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
20. Chege, P. W., & Mwisukha, A. (2013). Benefits of slum tourism in Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya. International Journal of Arts and Commerce, 2, 94–102.
21. Chiodelli, F., & Moroni, S. (2014). The complex nexus between informality and the law: Reconsidering unauthorised settlements in light of the concept of nomotropism. Geoforum, 51, 161–168. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.11.004.
22. Cities Alliance. (2006). Cities Alliance for Cities Without Slums: Action plan for moving slum upgrading to scale. Cities Alliance, Washington, DC. pp. 1, Retrieved from http://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/ActionPlan.pdf.
23. Cities Alliance. (2014). About slum upgrading. Retrieved January 2, 2016, from http://www.citiesalliance.org/About-slum-upgrading.
24. Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technology in Society, 28, 63–80. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.10.005.
25. Cohen, M. (2014). The city is missing in the millennium development goals. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 15, 261–274. doi:10.1080/19452829.2014.899564.
26. Crooks, A. T., & Heppenstall, A. (2012). Introduction to agent-based modeling. In A. Heppenstall, A. T. Crooks, L. M. See, & M. Batty (Eds.), Agent-Based models of geographical systems (pp. 85–105). New York, NY: Springer.
27. Crooks, A. T., Castle, C. J. E., & Batty, M. (2008). Key challenges in agent-based modelling for geo-spatial simulation. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 32, 417–430. doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2008.09.004.
28. Crooks, A. T., Hudson-Smith, A., Croitoru, A., & Stefanidis, A. (2014). The evolving GeoWeb. In R. J. Abrahart & L. M. See (Eds.), Geocomputation (2nd ed.). (pp. 67–94). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
29. Davis, C. A., & Alves, L. L. (2005). Local spatial data infrastructures based on a service-oriented architecture. Proceedings of the VII Brazilian Symposium on Geoinformatics, Campos do Jordao, Brazil, pp. 30–45.
30. Desai, V., & Loftus, A. (2013). Speculating on slums: Infrastructural fixes in informal housing in the global south. Antipode, 45, 789–808. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2012.01044.x.
31. Dubovyk, O., Sliuzas, R., & Flacke, J. (2011). Spatio-temporal modelling of informal settlement development in Sancaktepe district, Istanbul, Turkey. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 66, 235–246. doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2010.10.002.
32. Ebert, A., Kerle, N., & Stein, A. (2009). Urban social vulnerability assessment with physical proxies and spatial metrics derived from air- and spaceborne imagery and GIS data. Natural Hazards, 48, 275–294. doi:10.1007/s11069-008-9264-0.
33. Fekade, W. (2000). Deficits of formal urban land management and informal responses under rapid urban growth, an international perspective. Habitat International, 24, 127–150. doi:10.1016/S0197-3975(99)00034-X.
34. Fernandes, N. F., Guimarães, R. F., Gomes, R. A., Vieira, B. C., Montgomery, D. R., & Greenberg, H. (2004). Topographic controls of landslides in Rio de Janeiro: field evidence and modeling. Catena, 55, 163–181. doi:10.1016/S0341-8162(03)00115-2.
35. Filho, M. B., & Sobreira, F. (2005). Assessing texture pattern in slum across scales. An unsupervised approach. (Working Paper 87). London, UK: Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (University College London).
36. Fox, S. (2008). On the origins and consequences of slums. In Centre for the study of African economies - economic development in Africa conference. Oxford, UK: Center for the Study of African Economies.
37. Fox, S. (2012). Urbanization as a global historical process: Theory and evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. Population and Development Review, 38, 285–310. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00493.x.
38. Fox, S. (2014). The Political economy of slums: Theory and evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 54, 191–203. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.08.005.
39. Galeon, F. A. (2008). Estimation of population in informal settlement communities using high resolution satellite image. In C. Jun, J. Jie, & S. Nayak (Eds.), 21st international society for photogrammetry and remote sensing congress (pp. 1377–1382). China: Beijing.
40. Gambo, Y. L., Idowu, O. B., & Anyakora, I. M. (2012). Impact of poor housing condition on the economy of the urban poor: Makoko, Lagos State in view. Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences, 3, 302–307.
41. Gibson-Graham, J. K. (2008). Diverse economies: Performative practices for other worlds. Progress in Human Geography, 32, 613–632. doi:10.1177/0309132508090821.
42. Gilbert, A. (2007). The return of the slum: Does language matter? International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 31, 697–713. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00754.x.
43. Gilbert, A. (2011). Ten myths undermining Latin American housing policy. Revista de Ingeniería, 35, 79–87.
44. Gilbert, A. (2014). Housing the urban poor. In V. Desai & R. Potter (Eds.), The companion to development studies (3rd ed.). (pp. 306–309). New York, NY: Routledge.
45. Glaeser, E. (2011). Triumph of the city: How our greatest invention makes us richer, smarter, greener, healthier and happier. New York, NY: Pan Macmillan.
46. Goodchild, M. F. (2007). Citizens as sensors: The world of volunteered geography. GeoJournal, 69, 211–221. doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9111-y.
47. Gruber, D., Kirschner, A., Mill, S., Schach, M., Schmekel, S. and Seligman, H. (2005). Living and working in slums of Mumbai. Institut für Soziologie, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg. Arbeitsbericht Nr. 36. Magdeburg, Germany, Retrieved from http://www.eurostud.ovgu.de/isoz_media/downloads/arbeitsberichte/36.pdf.
48. Gulyani, S., Talukdar, D., & Jack, D. (2010). Poverty, living conditions, and infrastructure access: A comparison of slums in Dakar, Johannesburg, and Nairobi (Policy Research Working Paper 5388). Geneva, Switzerland: World Bank.
49. Habitat, U. N. (2012). Urban planning for city leaders. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations.
50. Hall, G. B., Malcolm, N. W., & Piwowar, J. M. (2001). Integration of remote sensing and GIS to detect pockets of urban poverty: The case of Rosario. Transactions in GIS, 5, 235–253. doi:10.1111/1467-9671.00080.
51. Henderson, J. V., Storeygard, A., & Weil, D. N. (2012). Measuring economic growth from outer space. American Economic Review, 102, 994–1028. doi:10.1257/aer.102.2.994.
52. Heppenstall, A., Malleson, N., & Crooks, A. (2016). Space, the final frontier: How good are agent-based models at simulating individuals and space in cities? Systems, 4, 9. http://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/4/1/9/html, doi:10.3390/systems4010009.
53. Hofmann, P. (2001). Detecting informal settlements from IKONOS image data using methods of object oriented image analysis: An example from Cape Town (South Africa). In C. Jürgen (Ed.), Remote sensing of urban Areas/Fernerkundung in Urbanen Räumen (pp. 79–91). Regenburg, Germany: University of Regenburg.
54. Hurskainen, P. (2004). The informal settlements of Voi. In P. Pellikka, J. Ylhäisi, & B. Clark (Eds.), Taita hills and Kenya (pp. 64–78). Helsinki, Finland: University of Helsinki.
55. Ishtiaque, A., & Mahmud, M. S. (2011). Migration objectives and their fulfillment: A micro study of the ruralurban migrants of the slums of Dhaka City. Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 7, 24–29.
56. Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
57. Jankowska, M. M., Weeks, J. R., & Engstrom, R. (2012). Do the most vulnerable people live in the worst slums? A spatial analysis of Accra. Ghana. Annals of GIS, 17, 221–235. doi:10.1080/19475683.2011.625976.
58. Jokar Arsanjani, J. J., Helbich, M., Kainz, W., & Darvishi Boloorani, A. D. (2013). Integration of logistic regression, Markov chain and cellular automata models to simulate urban expansion. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 21, 265–275. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2011.12.014.
59. Khalifa, M. A. (2011). Redefining slums in Egypt: Unplanned versus unsafe areas. Habitat International, 35, 40–49. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2010.03.004.
60. Khan, M., Kraemer, Alexander, & Kraemer, A. (2014). Are rural–urban migrants living in urban slums more vulnerable in terms of housing, health knowledge, smoking, mental health and general health? International Journal of Social Welfare, 23, 373–383. doi:10.1111/ijsw.12053.
61. Killemsetty, N. (2013). Understanding the evolution of slums in Ahmedabad, through the integration of survey data sets. In A. M. Garland (Ed.), Innovation in urban development: Incremental housing, big data, and gender (pp. 127–145). Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
62. Kit, O., Lüdeke, M., & Reckien, D. (2012). Texture-based identification of urban slums in Hyderabad, India using remote sensing data. Applied Geography, 32, 660–667. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.07.016.
63. Kitchin, R., Lauriault, T. P., & McArdle, G. (2015). Knowing and governing cities through urban indicators, city benchmarking and real-time dashboards. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 2, 6–28. doi:10.1080/21681376.2014.983149.
64. Kohli, D., Sliuzas, R., Kerle, N., & Stein, A. (2012). An ontology of slums for image-based classification. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 36, 154–163. doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2011.11.001.
65. Kombe, W. J. (2005). Land use dynamics in peri-urban areas and their implications on the urban growth and form: The case of Dar es Salaam. Habitat International, 29, 113–135. doi:10.1016/S0197-3975(03)00076-6.
66. Kotkin, J. (2014). Welcome to the billion man slum. Retrieved March 21, 2015, from http://www.newgeography.com/content/004491-welcome-billion-man-slum.
67. Kuffer, M., Pfeffer, K., & Sliuzas, R. (2016). Slums from space—15 years of slum mapping using remote sensing. Remote Sensing, 8, 455. doi:10.3390/rs8060455.
68. Lall, S. V., Lundberg, M. K., & Shalizi, Z. (2008). Implications of alternate policies on welfare of slum dwellers: Evidence from Pune. Journal of Urban Economics, 63, 56–73.
69. Leete, R. (2003). Funding crisis in the 2000 round of population censuses. International expert group meeting mechanisms for ensuring continuity of 10-year population censuses: Strategies for reducing census costs. Pretoria, South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.paris21.org/sites/default/files/182.doc.
70. Linden, J. J. (1986). The sites and services approach reviewed: Solution or stopgap to the third world housing shortage?. Brookfield, UK: Gower Publishing Company.
71. Lisini, G., Gamba, P., & Dell’Acqua, F. (2012). A novel extension of the anisotropic rotation-invariant built-up presence index to SAR data. European Journal of Remote Sensing, 45, 189–199. doi:10.5721/EuJRS20124518.
72. Malecki, E. J. & Ewers, M. C. (2007). Labor migration to world cities: With a research agenda for the Arab Gulf. Progress in Human Geography, 31, 467–484. doi:10.1177/0309132507079501.
73. Martínez, J. (2009). The use of GIS and indicators to monitor intra-urban inequalities: A case study in Rosario. Habitat International, 33, 387–396. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2008.12.003.
74. Marx, B., Stoker, T., & Suri, T. (2013a). The economics of slums in the developing world. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27, 187–210. doi:10.1257/jep.27.4.187.
75. Marx, B., Stoker, T. and Suri, T. (2013b). There is no free house: Ethnic patronage and property rights in a Kenyan slum. New York, NY: Center on Global Economic Governance, Columbia University. Retrieved from http://cgeg.sipa.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/cgeg/F13_MarxStokerSuri.pdf.
76. Mayo, S. K., & Angel, S. (1993). Housing: enabling markets to work; with technical supplements. Washington, DC: World Bank.
77. McFarlane, C. (2008). Sanitation in Mumbai's informal settlements: State, ‘slum’, and infrastructure. Environment and Planning A, 40, 88–107. doi:10.1068/a39221.
78. McFarlane, C. (2012). Rethinking informality: Politics, crisis, and the city. Planning Theory & Practice, 13, 89–108. doi:10.1080/14649357.2012.649951.
79. Meier, P. (2015). Digital humanitarians. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
80. MHUPA. (2013). Rajiv Awas Yojana (2013-2022). New Delhi, India: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India. Retrieved from http://mhupa.gov.in/writereaddata/RAYGuidelines.pdf.
81. Montgomery, M. R. (2008). The urban transformation of the developing world. Science, 319, 761–764. doi:10.1126/science.1153012.
82. Napier, M. (2007). Informal settlement integration, the environment and sustainable livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa. Montreal, Canada: University of Montreal. Retrieved from http://www.grif.umontreal.ca/pages/irec%20papers/napier.pdf.
83. O’Sullivan, D. (2008). Geographical information science: Agent-based models. Progress in Human Geography, 32, 541–550. doi:10.1177/0309132507086879.
84. Oberai, A. (1993). Population growth, employment and poverty in third-world mega-cities. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
85. Omole, K. F. (2010). An assessment of housing condition and socio-economic life styles of slum dwellers in Akure. Nigeria. Contemporary Management Research, 6, 271–290. doi:10.7903/cmr.2980.
86. Opeyemi, M. K., Olabode, M. O., Olalekan, K. B., & Omolola, A. O. (2012). Urban slums as spatial manifestations of urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa: A case study of Ajegunle slum settlement, Lagos. Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 2(11), 1–10.
87. Patel, A. (2012). Slumulation: An integrated simulation framework to explore spatio-temporal dynamics of slum formation in Ahmedabad, India PhD Dissertation. George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.
88. Patel, A., Crooks, A. T., & Koizumi, N. (2012). Slumulation: An agent-based modeling approach to slum formations. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 15, 2. Retrieved from http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/15/4/2.html. doi:10.18564/jasss.2045.
89. Patel, A., Koizumi, N., & Crooks, A. T. (2014). Measuring slum severity in Mumbai and Kolkata: A householdbased approach. Habitat International, 41, 300–306. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.09.002.
90. Pawar, D. H., & Mane, V. D. (2013). Socio-economic status of slum dwellers with special reference to women: Geographical investigation of Kolhapur Slum. Research Front, 1, 69–72.
91. Praharaj, M. (2013). Land accessibility for slum dwellers: A case study Bhubaneswar. Institute of Town Planners, India Journal, 10, 11–23.
92. Rashid, S. F. (2009). Strategies to reduce exclusion among populations living in urban slum settlements in Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 27, 574–586.
93. Reades, J. (2014). Mapping changes in the affordability of London with open-source software and open data: 1997–2012. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 1, 336–338. doi:10.1080/21681376.2014.985702.
94. Richter, C., Miscione, G., De, R., & Pfeffer, K. (2011). Enlisting SDI for urban planning in India: Local practices in the case of slum declaration. In Yola Georgiadou, J. Crompvoets, & Y. Georgiadou (Eds.), Spatial data infrastructures in context (pp. 157–179). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
95. Roy, D., Lees, M. H., Palavalli, B., Pfeffer, K., & Sloot, M. P. (2014). The emergence of slums: A contemporary view on simulation models. Environmental Modelling & Software, 59, 76–90. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2014.05.004.
96. Saglio-Yatzimirsky, M. (2013). Dharavi: From mega-slum to urban paradigm. New Delhi, India: Routledge.
97. Saith, A. (2006). From universal values to millennium development goals: Lost in translation. Development and Change, 37, 1167–1199. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2006.00518.x.
98. Schelling, T. C. (1978). Micromotives and macrobehavior. New York, NY: WW Norton and Company.
99. Sen, S., Hobson, J., & Joshi, P. (2003). The Pune slum census: Creating a socio-economic and spatial information base on a GIS for integrated and inclusive city development. Habitat International, 27, 595–611. doi:10.1016/S0197-3975(03)00007-9.
100. Shevky, E., & Bell, W. (1955). Social area analysis: Theory, illustrative application and computational procedures. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
101. Sietchiping, R. (2004). A geographic information systems and cellular automata-based model of informal settlement growth PhD thesis. School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Retrieved from http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/10187/1036.
102. Smith, D. A. (2013). What is a slum? Twelve definitions (Affordable Housing Innovations Working Paper 06/06). Boston, MA: Affordable Housing Institute. Retrieved from http://affordablehousinginstitute.org/storage/images/AH-Innovations-06-what-is-a-slum-v0.42-130225.pdf.
103. Sola, O. (2013). Pattern of housing expenditure in Ondo State. Nigeria. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 6, 25–36.
104. de Soto, H. (2002). The other path: The economic answer to terrorism. New York, NY: Basic Books.
105. de Souza, F. A. (2001). The future of informal settlements: Lessons in the legalization of disputed urban land in Recife. Geoforum, 32, 483–492. doi:10.1016/S0016-7185(01)00014-8.
106. Srivastava, A., & Singh, R. C. (1996). Slums and associated problems: A case study of Bhilai, an industrial city. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 50, 51–60. doi:10.1080/00207239608711038.
107. Stasolla, M., & Gamba, P. (2008). Spatial indexes for the extraction of formal and informal human settlements from high-resolution SAR images. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, 1, 98–106. doi:10.1109/JSTARS.2008.921099.
108. Takeuchi, A., Cropper, M., & Bento, A. (2006). The welfare effects of slum improvement programs: The case of Mumbai (World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Number 3852). Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=922978.
109. Taubenböck, H., Wurm, M., Setiadi, N., Gebert, N., Roth, A., Strunz, G., … Dech, S. (2009). Integrating remote sensing and social science: The correlation of urban morphology with socioeconomic parameters. Proceedings of the 2009 Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event, IEEE, Shanghai, China.
110. Tiebout, C. M. (1956). A pure theory of local expenditures. Journal of Political Economy, 64, 416–424.
111. Tsenkova, S., Potsiou, C., & Badyina, A. (2009). Self-made cities: In search of sustainable solutions for informal settlements in the United Nations economic commission for Europe region. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.
112. Ullah, A. A. (2004). Bright city lights and slums of Dhaka city: Determinants of rural-urban migration in Bangladesh. Migration Letters, 1, 26–41.
113. UN-Habitat. (2003). The challenge of slums - global report on human settlements 2003. London, UK: United Nations Human Settlements Programme.
114. UN-Habitat. (2006). State of the world’s cities 2006/7. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat.
115. UN-Habitat. (2008). State of the world’s cities 2008/2009 - harmonious cities. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat.
116. UN-Habitat. (2010). State of the cities 2010-11 - cities for all: Bridging the urban divide. UN-Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved from http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=8891&catid=643&typeid=46&subMenuId=0&AllContent=1.
117. United Nations. (2000). The future orientation of geographic information systems (GIS) in Africa: Provisional document for review. Addis Ababa: United Nations. Economic Commission for Africa, Development Information Services Division (2000-11). Retrieved from http://repository.uneca.org/handle/10855/4404.
118. United Nations. (2012). Millennium development goal indicators. Retrieved June 15, 2015, from http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx.
119. United Nations. (2015a). The millennium development goals report 2015. New York, NY: United Nations.
120. United Nations. (2015b). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.ua.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda.html.
121. UN-OHRLLS. (2016). Criteria for identification and graduation of LDCs. Retrieved June 8, 2016, from http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/.
122. Vasudevan, A. (2015). The makeshift city. Towards a global geography of squatting. Progress in Human Geography, 39, 338–359. doi:10.1177/0309132514531471.
123. Veljanovski, T., Kanjir, U., Pehani, P., Otir, K., & Kovai, P. (2012). Object-based image analysis of VHR satellite imagery for population estimation in informal settlement Kibera-Nairobi, Kenya. In B. Escalante-Ramirez (Ed.), Remote sensing–applications (pp. 407–434). Rijeka, Croatia: IntechOpen.
124. Virtual Kenya. (2015). Virtual Kenya. Retrieved September 28, 2015, from www.virtualkenya.org.
125. Weeks, J. R., Hill, A., Stow, D., Getis, A., & Fugate, D. (2007). Can we spot a neighborhood from the air? Defining neighborhood structure in Accra. Geo Journal, 69, 9–22. doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9098-4.
126. Werlin, H. (1999). The slum upgrading myth. Urban Studies, 36, 1523–1534. doi:10.1080/0042098992908.
127. World Bank. (2005). Doing business in 2006: Creating jobs. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from http://www.doingbusiness.org/reports/global-reports/doing-business-2006.
128. Young, G., & Flacke, J. (2010). Agent-based model of the growth of an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: An empirically informed concept. In D. Swayne, W. Yang, A. Voinov, A. Rizzoli, & T. Filatova (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2010 international congress on environmental modelling and software: Modeling for environment’s sake. Canada: Ottawa. Retrieved from http://iemss.logismi.co/xmlui/bitstream/handle/iemss/10080/2.pdf?sequence=2