In sports the best man wins: How joe louis whupped jim crow

In the Game: Race, Identity, and Sports in the Twentieth Century

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 47-92

  Runstedtler, Theresa E ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85015105739     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1057/9781403980458_3     Document Type: Chapter

References (210)

1. Chris Mead, Joe Louis: Black Hero in White America (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1985), 159.
2. Frank Sinatra, "Foreword," Neil Scott, Joe Louis: A Picture Story of his Life (New York: Greenberg, 1947).
3. Black Metropolis: A Study of Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1945).
4. Hazel V. Carby, Race Men (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1998).
5. Richard Wright, "High Tide in Harlem," New Masses, July 1938.
6. Richard Wright, "Joe Louis Uncovers Dynamite," New Masses, Oct. 8, 1935, 18-19.
7. David Levering Lewis, When Harlem was in Vogue (New York: Penguin, 1979, reprinted 1997), 24.
8. Booker T. Washington, A New Negro for a New Century: An Up-to-Date Record of the Upward Struggles of the Negro Race (Chicago: American Publishing House, 1900).
9. Cary Wintz, Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance (Houston: Rice University Press, 1988).
10. David Krasner, A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama, and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910-1927 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
11. Mark Schneider, We Return Fighting: The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002).
12. Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2003).
13. Penny Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anti-Colonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
14. Edward Van Every, Joe Louis, Man and Super-fighter (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1936).
15. "Here are Details on Weight and Size of Joe Louis," Pittsburgh Courier, June 8, 1935, section 2, 4.
16. B. Weinstein, "Joe Louis Comes to Town," Young Worker, June 25, 1935.
17. "The Real Joe Louis, by his sister Eunice Barrow," Young Worker, December 24, 1935, 1.
18. Theophilus Lewis, "Boxing Business Man," New York Amsterdam News, July 6, 1935.
19. Othello Harris, "Muhammad Ali and the Revolt of the Black Athlete," in Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, ed. Elliot Gorn (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995): 56.
20. Harry Edwards, The Revolt of the Black Athlete (New York: Free Press, 1969).
21. Bill Hawkins, "The White Supremacy Continuum of Images on Black Men," Journal of African American Men 3, no. 3 (Winter 1998): 7-18
22. Othello Harris, "The Role of Sports in the Black Community," in African Americans in Sport, ed. Gary A. Sailes (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998), 3-14
23. David K. Wiggins, "The Notion of Double Consciousness and the Involvement of Black Athletes in American Sport," in Ethnicity and Sport in North American History and Culture, eds. George Eisen and David K. Wiggins (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994) 133-156
24. Ken Burns, "Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson." USA: PBS, 2005
25. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) 8-10
26. Randy Roberts, Papa Jack: Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hopes (New York: The Free Press, 1983).
27. Lauren Rebecca Sklaroff, "Constructing G.I. Joe Louis: Cultural Solutions to the ‘Negro Problem’ during World War II," Journal of American History 89, no.3 (December 2002): 958-983.
28. Jeffrey Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988): 97-129
29. Gerald Astor, "And a Credit to His Race": The Hard Life and Times of Joseph Louis Barrow, a.k.a. Joe Louis (New York: E. Dutton, 1974).
30. Jill M. Dupont, "‘The Self in the Ring, the Self in Society’: Boxing and American Culture from Jack Johnson to Joe Louis," Ph.D. diss. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000)
31. Art Evans, "Joe Louis as Key Functionary: White Reaction Toward a Black Champion," Journal of Black Studies 16, no. 1 (September 1985): 95-111
32. William H. Wiggins, "Boxing’s Sambo Twins: Racial Stereotypes in Jack Johnson and Joe Louis Newspaper Cartoons, 1908-1938," Journal of Sport History 15, no. 3 (Winter 1988): 242-254
33. Dominic J. Capeci, Jr. and Martha Wilkerson, "Multifarious Hero: Joe Louis, American Society, and Race Relations During World Crisis, 1935-1945," Journal of Sport History 10, no. 3 (Winter 1983): 5-25.
34. A. O. Edmonds, Joe Louis (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1973).
35. Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).
36. Wilson J. Moses, Black Messiahs and Uncle Toms: Social and Literary Manipulations of a Religious Myth (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1982).
37. Richard Bak, Joe Louis: The Great Black Hope (Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1996).
38. Donald McRae, In Black & White: The Untold Story of Joe Louis and Jesse Owens (London: Scribner, 2002)
39. Thomas Hietala, Fight of the Century: Jack Johnson, Joe Louis, and the Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2002).
40. Alain Locke, ed., The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance (New York: MacMillan, 1925, reprinted 1992): 5, 8, 16.
41. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 5, 25.
42. Barbara Melosh, Engendering Culture: Manhood and Womanhood in New Deal Public Art and Theater (Washington: Smithsonian Press, 1991): 43.
43. Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 12-13
44. Martin A. Summers, Manliness and its Discontents: The Black Middle Class and the Transformation of Masculinity, 1900-1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 8-9.
45. Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 7-12
46. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: Maxwell Macmillan, 1994) 112-114.
47. Summers, Manliness and its Discontents, 151-153.
48. Emphasis added, "Joe Louis Needs Boosters, Not Knockers," Pittsburgh Courier, May 11, 1935.
49. "Joe Louis is ‘Three Times Seven,'" Pittsburgh Courier, May 18, 1935, section 2, 4.
50. "Rise of Joe Louis is Biggest Sensation in Sports History," Chicago Defender, May 4, 1935.
51. Alexander Johnson, Ten-And Out! The Complete Story of the Prize Ring in America (New York: Ives Washburn, 1936): 245.
52. Richard Bak, Joe Louis: The Great Black Hope, 82-87.
53. Daniel M. Daniel, The Mike Jacobs Story (New York: Ring Book Shop, Inc., 1949).
54. Clifford Lewis, The Life and Times of Primo Carnera (London: Athletic Publications, 1932).
55. Langston Hughes, "Call of Ethiopia," Opportunity, September 1935, 276.
56. Edna and Art Rust, Jr., Joe Louis: My Life (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978): 58.
57. Westbrook Pegler, "Emperor Goes in Training for His ‘Big Boy Peterson’: Mussolini Takes Leaf Out of Carnera’s Science of Warfare By Selecting Setup For His First Battle," Birmingham Post, February 16, 1935.
58. "Police Squads to Guard Louis," Baltimore Sun, June 25, 1935.
59. John Lardner, "Can’t Help Being King, Says Louis: Wins First Real Skirmish Between Men of Italy and Ethiopia," Evening Bulletin Philadelphia, June 26, 1935.
60. Irene Gaskin, "Boys Salute the Flag, the Red, Black, Green," Negro World, July 5, 1924, 10
61. Summers, "A Spirit of Manliness," in Manliness and its Discontents, 66-110.
62. Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001) 261-288.
63. Lenwood G. Davis, Joe Louis: A Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983) 202-203.
64. Jay Jackson, "Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth-(Modern Version: His Fist)," Chicago Defender, May 25, 1935.
65. Chester Washington, "Sez Ches," Pittsburgh Courier, June 1, 1935, section 2, 4
66. Burris Jenkins, Jr., "Brown Study," New York Evening Journal, June 6, 1935.
67. Dan Burley, "Louis Ready for Baer," Baltimore Afro-American, April 20, 1935, 21.
68. "Ethiopia Defiant as Italy Plans to Grab Africa," Chicago Defender, February 16, 1935.
69. "Ethiopia in Stern Reply to Mussolini," Chicago Defender, May 11, 1935, 1.
70. "Look Out, Italy," Chicago Defender, June 15, 1935, 1.
71. Dan Burley, "Louis In Tip-Top Form on Eve of Carnera Bout," Baltimore Afro-American, June 22, 1935, 20.
72. Thomas O’Halloran, "Forced Civilization Hit By Educator in Talk on Ethiopia," New Jersey Post, October 30, 1935.
73. Garvey’s poems, "The Beast of Rome," Black Man, October 1935, 4.
74. Paul Gallico, "At it Again," New York Daily News, June 25, 1935.
75. Ed Hughes, "Another Case of ‘Bad Hands,'" Brooklyn Daily Eagle, August 17, 1935.
76. "Joe Louis Purchases Home for his Mother in Detroit," Chicago Defender, April 13, 1935, 7
77. Julia B. Jones, "How does it feel to be the Mother of the Next Heavyweight Champ?" Pittsburgh Courier, April 27, 1935, section 1, 11.
78. George Lee, "Sporting Around," Chicago Defender, May 18, 1935, 15.
79. Robin Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).
80. Patricia Sullivan, Days of Hope: Race and Democracy in the New Deal Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
81. Jervis Anderson, This was Harlem: A Cultural Portrait, 1900-1950 (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982): 242-244.
82. "Machine Guns Set Up," Baltimore Afro-American, March 23, 1935, 1-2
83. "Harlem Race Riot," Pittsburgh Courier, March 23, 1935, 1-2
84. "Blame Radicals for Spreading False Rumors," Chicago Defender, March 23, 1935, 1-2.
85. "Joseph Louis Barrow," Opportunity, October 1935, 295.
86. Paul Oliver, Aspects of the Blues Tradition (New York: Oak Publications, 1970): 149-50.
87. "New Buick Brings Smile to Joe Louis," Pittsburgh Courier, May 11, 1935.
88. Al White, "New York Likes Joe Louis," Claude Barnett Papers, Part I, Series A, Reel 10, May 20, 1935, 16
89. "Louis Called Best-Dressed Heavyweight," Baltimore Afro-American, June 15, 1935, 1.
90. "Defender Cameraman Follows Joe Louis Around in N.Y.," Chicago Defender, May 25, 1935, 17.
91. "Joe Louis Captures New York," New York Age, May 25, 1935, 15.
92. Louis, Joe Louis: My Life, 54.
93. William G. Nunn, "Courier Writer Paints Word-Picture of Trip to Pompton Lakes Camp," June 8, 1935.
94. Bill Gibson, "Hear me talkin’ to ya," Baltimore Afro-American, June 15, 1935, 20.
95. Russell Cowans, "Room Said to Have Been Used by Geo. Washington Now Used by Joe Louis," Baltimore Afro-American, June 8, 1935, 21.
96. Jersey Jones, "Joe Louis’s Training Camp is One of Most Modern and Ideal Spots in the Metropolitan District," New York Age, June 8, 1935, 8.
97. Lewis E. Dial, "The Sports Dial," New York Age, June 22, 1935.
98. "Sutton, Who Helped Johnson Before Title Fight, To Be Dietician In Joe Louis Camp," Pittsburgh Courier, April 6, 1935, section 2, 5
99. Chester Washington, "Visiting the Joe Louis Training Camp," Pittsburgh Courier, June 8, 1935.
100. "Joe Louis Going Great on 2-Meal Diet-Sutton," Pittsburgh Courier, June 15, 1935.
101. William G. Nunn, "Courier Writer Paints Word-Picture of Trip to Pompton Lakes Camp," Pittsburgh Courier, June 8, 1935.
102. Charles Heckelmann, "Eat and Sleep Pastimes for Bomber Louis," Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 17, 1935.
103. "Joe Louis Going Great as He Trains for Big Bout with ‘Da Preem’," Pittsburgh Courier, June 8, 1935
104. "Joe and Jack-The Perfect Combination," Pittsburgh Courier, July 20, 1935, section 2, 4.
105. "Joe Louis and His Board of Strategy," Pittsburgh Courier, March 23, 1935, section 2, 5
106. "No White Managers," Baltimore Afro-American, June 22, 1935
107. "Joe Louis Wins," Chicago Defender, June 29, 1935.
108. Lewis E. Dial, "The Sports Dial," New York Age, June 8, 1935, 8.
109. "Many Visitors at Joe Louis’s Camp," Baltimore Afro-American, June 8, 1935, 16.
110. "Johnny Dundee, Claude Hopkins Visit Louis Camp," Baltimore Afro-American, June 15, 1935, 20
111. Joseph Mitchell, "Harlem Argues Itself to Sleep About Joe Louis and How He’ll Tear the Stadium to Pieces Tonight," New York World-Telegram, June 25, 1935.
112. Lewis E. Dial, "The Sports Dial," New York Age, June 22, 1935.
113. Julia B. Jones, "How does it feel to be the Mother of the Next Heavyweight Champ?" Pittsburgh Courier, April 27, 1935, section 1, 11.
114. Wilbur Wood, "Louis Iceberg in Ring or Out: Bomber Abhors Flattery and Flatterers and Girls Don’t Interest Him," New York Sun, August 12, 1935.
115. "Live Clean Life, Louis Advises Ring Hopefuls," Baltimore Afro-American, June 15, 1935.
116. See John Lardner, "Joe Louis Sleeps and Sleeps But He’s Happy, Family Says So," New York Post, June 27, 1935.
117. Margaret Garrahan, "Fame Doesn’t Bother Giant Killer Louis: Joe Just Sleeps and Eats as Rest of World is Agog Over Win," Birmingham News, June 28, 1935.
118. Henry McLemore, "Joe Louis May be a Whirlwind Killer Inside Ring Ropes, but Out of Them He is World’s Laziest Man," Wilkesbarre Times-Leader, July 2, 1935.
119. Charles Heckelmann, "Eat and Sleep Pastimes for Bomber Louis," Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 17, 1935.
120. "Famed Brown Bomber Ready," New York Amsterdam News, June 22, 1935, 14.
121. Nat Fleischer, Scientific Blocking and Hitting and Other Methods of Defense (New York: C. J. O’Brien, 1935).
122. Boxing: A Guide to the Manly Art of Self Defense (New York: American Sports Publishing Company, 1929).
123. Tommy Burns, Scientific Boxing and Self Defence (London: Athletic Publications, 1927).
124. Russell Cowans, "News from the Joe Louis Camp," Pittsburgh Courier, June 1, 1935, section 2, 4
125. Lewis E. Dial, "The Sports Dial," New York Age, June 8, 1935, 8.
126. "Defender Scribe Does Road Work with Louis," Chicago Defender, June 15, 1935.
127. Westbrook Pegler, "Fair Enough: Plan to Stage Italian-Negro Prizefight at Very Door of Embittered Harlem is Called New High in Stupid Judgment," New York Sun, 1935.
128. Al Monroe, "Speaking of Sports," Chicago Defender, May 25, 1935, 15.
129. "Do They Want Trouble?" New York Amsterdam News, June 15, 1935.
130. "Columnist Spoofs Rumor of Trouble at Louis-Carnera Go," Journal and Guide, June 1, 1935, 14.
131. "Do They Want Trouble?" New York Amsterdam News, June 15, 1935.
132. "Louis-Carnera Fight Boycott is Sought by Daily," Baltimore Afro-American, June 22, 1935, 1
133. "Uses Papers to Separate Groups Here," Chicago Defender, June 22, 1935, 1.
134. Gaines, Uplifting the Race, 246-251.
135. Chester Washington, "Louis Favored to Win by Knockout," Pittsburgh Courier, June 22, 1935.
136. Jack Miley, "Riot Guns Ready at Primo-Louis Fight," New York Daily News, June 26, 1935.
137. "Prejudice Kept Joe Louis-Carnera Fight Off the Air," Indianapolis Crusader, July 6, 1935.
138. "Distinguished Gathering Throngs Stadium for Heavyweight Battle," New York Times, June 26, 1935, 24.
139. Dan Parker, "Fans on Hand Early," New York Daily Mirror, June 26, 1935.
140. "Singing, Happy Negroes Jam Bleachers To See Ring Idol Continue Win String," Boston Herald, June 26, 1935.
141. "Louis-Carnera fight drew sport fans from all over country; Gross receipts were $328,655.44," New York Age, July 6, 1935.
142. "Stars of Stage, Screen, Mingle with the Masses," Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1935, section 1, 4
143. "List of Those at Big Bout Amazes," Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1935, section 1, 4.
144. "Al Monroe in Vivid Story of Big Fight," Chicago Defender, June 29, 1935, 14.
145. "‘Ches’ Gives The Courier Readers Ringside Story," Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1935, section 1, 4.
146. Floyd J. Calvin, "Harlem Goes ‘Mad With Joy’ as Joe Louis Chops Down Giant Opponent," Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1935, 1.
147. "Detroit Fans Believe Baer Gave up Title to Evade Joe Louis," Journal and Guide, June 29, 1935, 14.
148. "10,000 Hear Defender Broadcast of Fight," Chicago Defender, June 29, 1935, 1.
149. Bernard Young, Jr., "Conquest of Italian Foe is Complete," Journal and Guide, June 29, 1935, 2.
150. "Brisbane and Pegler," Chicago Defender, July 6, 1935.
151. Joseph Mitchell, "Harlem is Wild About Joe Louis, Don’t Folks Here Sleep? He Asks," New York World-Telegram, June 27, 1935.
152. "Harlem Celebrates," Chicago Daily Tribune, June 27, 1935.
153. Gordon B. Hancock, "A Letter to Joe Louis," Journal and Guide, July 13, 1935, 6.
154. Dan Burley, "Calls Joe Louis Worth Vice President or Congressman," Baltimore Afro-American, July 6, 1935, 16.
155. "Through the Magic of the Speed Camera the Guide Gives you a Louis-Carnera Ringside Seat," Journal and Guide, July 4, 1935, 14
156. "‘David Anoints Goliath’ with Barrage of Bruising Leather," Chicago Defender, July 6, 1935, 14.
157. Bill Nunn, "Perfect Fighting Machine," Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1935.
158. "Celebrities Praise Louis for Victory," Chicago Defender, June 29, 1935, 7.
159. "Joe Louis and Jesse Owens," Crisis, August 1935, 241.
160. "How Proud Should We Be of Joe Louis’s Victory?" Baltimore Afro-American, July 6, 1935, 4.
161. "Three of a Kind," New York Amsterdam News, July 6, 1935.
162. "The Moral in Joe Louis’ Victory," Journal and Guide, July 13, 1935, 6.
163. "Joe Louis Boys Club," New York Amsterdam News, July 14, 1935, 4.
164. E. Franklin Frazier, Negro Youth at the Crossways (New York: Schocken Books, 1940, 1967), 174-185.
165. "Graphic Story of Louis-Carnera Fight Told in Pictures," Chicago Defender, June 29, 1935, 13.
166. Chase, "Another Joe Louis," New York Amsterdam News, July 13, 1935, 12.
167. "Front Page," Chicago Defender, July 6, 1935.
168. William N. Jones, "Day by Day," Baltimore Afro-American, July 6, 1935, 4.
169. Ralph Matthews, "Watching the Big Parade," Baltimore Afro-American, July 6, 1935, 4.
170. Bill Corum, "Stick to your ‘Ma,’ Joe," New York Evening-Journal, June 27, 1935.
171. "Risko Warns Louis Against Overconfidence with Max," New York American, June 16, 1936.
172. Fred Van Ness, "Louis Celebrates 22nd Birthday; Cuts Cake and Gets Gold Belt," New York Times, May 14, 1936.
173. Lloyd Lewis, Chicago Daily News, June 17, 1936.
174. "Louis Listless in Sparring with Mates," New York American, May 27, 1936.
175. Hype Igoe, "Bomber Can’t Resist Lure of Golf Course," New York Evening Journal, June 4, 1936.
176. Al Monroe, "Bomber Fails to Slay ‘Em in Workouts, Chicago Defender, May 30, 1936.
177. Ralph Matthews, "Joe’s Camp Upset," Baltimore Afro-American, June 6, 1936.
178. James Cannon, "Fame and Riches May Bring About Louis’ Downfall," New York American, June 2, 1936.
179. "Brown Bomber Back in his Stride," Chicago Defender, June 6, 1936.
180. "Joe Louis Impressive in Camp Workout Sunday," Baltimore Afro-American, June 13, 1936.
181. Thelma Berlack-Boozer, "Joe’s Always To Be the Boss of the Family," New York Amsterdam News, June 20, 1936.
182. "Sunday Workout Shows Look Like Social Affair," Pittsburgh Courier, June 6, 1936, section 1, 9
183. "Harlem Elite Deluge Marva Louis with Favor!" Pittsburgh Courier, June 20, 1936, section 1, 9
184. "The Bomber’s Bride," New York Times, June 19, 1936.
185. "Joe’s Behavior Mother’s Care," July 7, 1935
186. "Joe in Church Sunday Under Mother’s Care," July 8, 1935
187. "Mother Warns Joe of Sugar-Mouths," July 8, 1935
188. "Joe’s Mother O.K.‘s Fights," July 12, 1935
189. "Mother Confident Joe Will Be Champ," July 13, 1935.
190. Seth Forman, Blacks in the Jewish Mind: A Crisis of Liberalism (New York, New York University Press, 1998).
191. Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, "Parallel Between Hitlerism and the Persecution of the Negroes in America," Crisis, May 1934, 127-129
192. "Fighting Eyes Show Determination of Heavyweight Fighters," Pittsburgh Courier, June 20, 1936.
193. "Hitler Still Frowns on Max Fighting Joe Louis in U.S.," New York American, May 19, 1936.
194. "It’s All Part of Day’s Work-In Busy Schmeling’s Camp," Atlanta Constitution, June 14, 1936
195. "Can He Stop the Bomber?" Atlanta Constitution, June 18, 1936.
196. "Mapping Out Maxie’s Battle Plans," Atlanta Constitution, June 19, 1936.
197. Pat Rosa, "Stolid Uhlan’s Pride and Ideals May Halt Joe Louis the ‘Drifter’," New York Post, June 13, 1936.
198. Bill Farnsworth, "Industrious Max Changes Style for Louis Bout," New York Evening Journal, May 13, 1936.
199. Mary Knight, "Girl Reporter Discovers Civilized Fight Camp," Dayton Herald, June 13, 1936.
200. "Detroit, Harlem in Gloom as Idol Collapses," Detroit Evening Times, June 20, 1936.
201. Fred Digby, "Max in Sensational Win!" New Orleans Morning Tribute, June 20, 1936.
202. "Just a Scared and Beaten Boy," New York Post, June 20, 1936.
203. "Schmeling Knocks Out Louis in Twelfth Round; Most Severe Beating in Ring History, Says Rice," Atlanta Constitution, June 20, 1936, 1.
204. "Continued Probe of Rumors That Bomber was Doped," Chicago Defender, June 20, 1936, 1
205. "Louis Not Doped; Love Rift Spiked," Baltimore Afro-American, June 27, 1936.
206. Marcus Garvey, "The World As It Is," Black Man, July/August 1936, 19-20.
207. Sam J. Jones, "He Can Take It," New York Amsterdam News, June 27, 1936, 12.
208. "Fans Advise Joe Louis on Marriage," Baltimore Afro-American, July 20, 1935, 2.
209. "Joe Louis Beats Braddock and Is World Champion," The Bantu World, South Africa, June 26, 1937, 1.
210. Philip Brian Harper, Are We Not Men? Masculine Anxiety and the Problem of African American Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), x.