Challenging Authority, Seeking Community, and Empowerment in the New Left, Black Power, and Feminism

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 106-143

  Rorabaugh, W J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85013589227     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0898030600005054     Document Type: Article

References (497)

1. Lionel Abel, The Intellectual Follies: A Memoir of the Literary Venture in New York and Paris (New York, 1984)
2. Greil Marcus, Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1989)
3. Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia, 1948).
4. A good example of the new literature is Norman Mailer, The Naked and the Dead (New York, 1948).
5. Recent surveys of the Sixties movements include Stewart Burns, Social Movements of the 1960s: Searching for Democracy (Boston, 1990)
6. David Chalmers, And the Crooked Places Made Straight: The Struggle for Social Change in the 1960s (Baltimore, 1991).
7. Older works are William L. O'Neill, Coming Apart: An Informal History of America in the 1960's (New York, 1971)
8. Irwin Unger, The Movement: A History of the New Left (New York, 1974)
9. Milton Viorst, Fire in the Streets: America in the 1960s (New York, 1979).
10. An account that combines history and memoir is Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York, 1987).
11. On the war, see Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During World War II (Westport, Conn., 1981)
12. D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, Mass., 1984)
13. Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993)
14. Ethel Klein, Gender Politics: From Consciousness to Mass Politics (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), 35–42.
15. On the diaspora, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York, 1991)
16. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989)
17. Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900–1954 (Lawrence, Kan., 1993).
18. A good short introduction to the Cold War is Thomas G. Paterson, On Every Front: The Making of the Cold War (New York, 1979).
19. See also H. W. Brands, The Devil We Knew: Americans and the Cold War (New York, 1993)
20. Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992, 7th ed. (New York, 1993; orig. 1967).
21. On containment, see Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York, 1969).
22. On the Third World, see Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York, 1984), 273.
23. An early astute observer was Pauli Murray, Song in a Weary Throat: An American Pilgrimage (New York, 1987), 107.
24. The connection was frequently drawn in the Kennedy White House. Richard Reeves, President Kennedy: Profile of Power (New York, 1993), 60–62, 127, 131–34, 490, 517–19.
25. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York, 1986), 90–91, 118, 124
26. David L. Lewis, King: A Biography, 2d ed. (Urbana, 1978; orig. 1970), 34, 36, 99–105
27. John Lewis quoted in Juan Williams, Eyes on the Prize: Americas Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965 (New York, 1987), 139.
28. In the Sixties a highly influential book on Algeria was Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (trans., New York, 1963; Paris, 1961).
29. Bud Schultz and Ruth Schultz, eds., It Did Happen Here: Recollections of Political Repression in America (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989)
30. Gitlin, Sixties, 63–64.
31. On specific areas, see Carl Bernstein, Loyalties: A Son's Memoir (New York, 1989)
32. Ann F. Ginger and David Christiano, eds., The Cold War Against Labor, 2 vols. (Berkeley, 1987)
33. Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York, 1986)
34. Larry Ceplair and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930–1960 (Garden City, N.Y., 1980)
35. Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of the Cold War (Chicago, 1989).
36. See also Vivian Gornick, The Romance of American Communism (New York, 1977)
37. Joseph R. Starobin, American Communism in Crisis, 1943–1957 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972)
38. James A. Wechsler, The Age of Suspicion (New York, 1953)
39. Cedric Belfrage, The American Inquisition, 1945–1960: A Profile of the “McCarthy Era” (Indianapolis, 1973).
40. Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, 1990)
41. Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993)
42. James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (New York, 1987), 121.
43. On the important role of the Highlander School and its tainted reputation, see Myles Horton, The Long Haul: An Autobiography (New York, 1990).
44. On smears, see Virginia F. Durr, Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr (University, Ala., 1985)
45. Lewis, King, 110, 257.
46. On the NAACP-communist conflict, see Wilson Record, Race and Radicalism: The NAACP and the Communist Party in Conflict (Ithaca, 1964).
47. See also Junius I. Scales and Richard Nickson, Cause at Heart: A Former Communist Remembers (Athens, Ga., 1987)
48. Angela Y. Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (New York, 1974), esp. 77–112
49. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 152. Even King, a youthful Baptist minister, could not escape the charges.
50. See David J. Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.: From “Solo” to Memphis (New York, 1981). This book is based on the King-Levison FBI file, which Garrow obtained under the Freedom of Information Act.
51. On Berkeley, see W. J. Rorabaugh, Berkeley at War: The 1960s (New York, 1989), 56, 62, 71.
52. On the South, see Murray, Song, 200–206, 208
53. David R. Goldfield, Block, White, and Southern: Race Relations and Southern Culture, 1940 to the Present (Baton Rouge, 1990).
54. The voting statistic is in Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics Since 1960 (Philadelphia, 1989), 6.
55. Roy Wilkins, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York, 1982)
56. Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts: How a Dedicated Band of Lawyers Fought for the Civil Rights Revolution (New York, 1994)
57. Mark V. Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law. Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court, 1936–1961 (New York, 1994)
58. Lewis, King, 117.
59. On CORE, see August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968 (New York, 1973).
60. On Parks, see Giddings, When and Where, 262–267.
61. On King, the most detailed account is Garrow, Bearing the Cross
62. a fine short biography is Lewis, King.
63. On nonviolence, see King, 34, 72, 85–87, 96–105.
64. Still valuable is Martin L. King Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York, 1958).
65. Frank J. Donner, The Un-Americans (New York, 1961).
66. On culture, see Morris Dickstein, Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties (New York, 1977)
67. Gitlin, Sixties, 31–54.
68. For a bleaker assessment, see Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS (New York, 1973), 19–20.
69. Also breaking barriers were the comedians Steve Allen, Lenny Bruce, Alexander King, and Mort Sahl. On the Beats, see Jack Kerouac, On the Road (New York, 1957)
70. Allen Ginsberg, Allen Verbatim: Lectures on Poetry, Politics, Consciousness, ed. Gordon Ball (New York, 1974).
71. Astute observations on the WASP establishment are in Joseph W. Alsop, I've Seen the Best of It: Memoirs (New York, 1992), 17–78.
72. On Mills, see Miller, Democracy, 79–91.
73. See also Mills's important essay, “Letter to the New Left,” [London] New Left Review (September-October 1960).
74. It was republished in the United States as “On the New Left,” Studies on the Left 2, no. 1 (1961).
75. The publishing history is in Paul Jacobs and Saul Landau, eds., The New Radicals: A Report with Documents (New York, 1966), 101, which also reprints the essay. Other restless intellectuals included Paul Goodman, Michael Harrington, and Dwight Macdonald.
76. Gitlin, Sixties, 57–58
77. Miller, Democracy, 16, 47, 55–56
78. Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945–1968 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988), 69–72
79. Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York, 1988), 45–46
80. Maurice Isserman, If I Had a Hammer: The Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left (New York, 1987), 194–198.
81. See, in general, Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept: John F. Kennedy's New Frontier (New York, 1991).
82. Miller, Democracy, 50–52
83. Hayden, Reunion, 32, 35, 79.
84. On rejection of anticomraunism, see Miller, Democracy, 112–17, 138
85. Sale, SDS, 56–57, 106
86. Gitlin, Sixties, 60–62
87. Isserman, Hammer, 173–74, 180–203.
88. Still useful is Jack Newfield, A Prophetic Minority (New York, 1966).
89. On sectarianism, see Isserman, Hammer.
90. On Port Huron, see Miller, Democracy, 106–125
91. “The Port Huron Statement,” Democracy, 329–374
92. Sale, SDS, 47–59.
93. See also Hayden, Reunion, 84–102.
94. On left-fringe ties, see Gitlin, Sixties, 74–75
95. Miller, Democracy, 28, 43–45, 160–61, 179 (quote at 161).
96. Dylan's importance can be understood best through his early songs, which others widely performed and recorded before Dylan became a star. Bob Dylan, The Freewheelin’ Bob Dylan (1963)
97. The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964).
98. See also Bob Dylan, Lyrics, 1962–1985 (New York, 1985; orig. 1973).
99. On drugs, see Miller, Democracy, 238
100. Sale, SDS, 204, 211, 264.
101. See also Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York, 1978).
102. On civil rights roots, see Miller, Democracy, 49–50, 57–61, 121
103. Sale, SDS, 35–36, 82–84
104. Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York, 1979), 103–105
105. Hayden, Reunion, 31–32, 46–48, 53–57, 60–72
106. Rorabaugh, Berkeley, 19, 22, 43, 46, 72–73, 83
107. Michael Rossman, The Wedding Within the War (Garden City, N.Y., 1971), 82–91. Examples are Robb Burlage, Tom Hayden, and Mario Savio.
108. On liberal origins, see Miller, Democracy, 23, 31–32, 71, 72, 74, 179, 219, 224–25
109. Sale, SDS, 89n
110. Evans, Personal Politics, 105–107
111. Gitlin, Sixties, 60, 66
112. Hayden, Reunion, 6.
113. On the Cold War, see Miller, Democracy, 51, 108, 111–17, 120–22, 127–35
114. Hayden quote from Michigan Daily, September 22, 1960
115. Michigan Daily, 31
116. “The Port Huron Statement,” Michigan Daily, 329
117. Sale, SDS, 51–52, 55.
118. On the Cuban Missile Crisis, see Miller, Democracy, 163–165.
119. Miller, Democracy, 35, 73–74, 116–17, 135–37
120. Sale, SDS, 89
121. Evans, Personal Politics, 120–124
122. Gitlin, Sixties, 67, 72–76.
123. Miller, Democracy, 139–40, 161–62
124. Sale, SDS, 60–68, 239–40
125. Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962–1968 (New York, 1982), 13–17.
126. See “The Port Huron Statement,” in Miller, Democracy, 329–374.
127. See, in general, Isserman, Hammer.
128. On openness, see Miller, Democracy, 205–206
129. Sale, SDS, 90.
130. On participatory democracy, see Miller, Democracy, 94–95, 142–48, 152–54, 207
131. “The Port Huron Statement,” Democracy, 333.
132. On male domination, see Evans, Personal Politics, 108–9, 116, 166–67.
133. On ERAP, see Miller, Democracy, 184, 190–217
134. Evans, Personal Politics, 129–155
135. Sale, SDS, 102–115, 131–50
136. Hartmann, Margin, 39
137. Breines, Community, 80–82.
138. On Newark, see Tom Hayden, Reunion, 123–150
139. on Chicago, see Todd Gitlin and Nanci Hollander, Uptown: Poor Whites in Chicago (New York, 1970).
140. On black ideas, see Claborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 217
141. Mary King, Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (New York, 1987), 499
142. Robin Morgan, Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist (New York, 1978), 102.
143. Rorabaugh, Berkeley
144. Paul Buhle, ed., History and the New Left: Madison, Wisconsin, 1950–1970 (Philadelphia, 1990)
145. on Kent, Ohio; Buffalo, N.Y.; State College, Pa.; and E. Lansing, Mich., see Kenneth J. Heineman, Campus Wars: The Peace Movement at American State Universities in the Vietnam Era (New York, 1993)
146. Douglas C. Rossinow, “Breakthrough: White Youth Radicalism in Austin, Texas, 1956–1973,” Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1994.
147. Miller, Democracy, 226–37, 249–51, 255–59
148. Sale, SDS, 171–99, 208, 213–14, 219–21, 226–36.
149. One of the fullest chronicles of the antiwar movement is by the Socialist Workers party's Fred Halstead, Out Now! A Participant's Account of the American Movement Against the Vietnam War (New York, 1978).
150. On the draft, see Sale, SDS, 253–64, 302–4, 311–16, 319–24
151. Evans, Personal Politics, 170–173.
152. On draft-card burning, see Rorabaugh, Berkeley, 92, 115
153. Sale, SDS, 322–324.
154. On women and the draft, see Evans, Personal Politics, 170–73, 179, 181–82, 185
155. Sale, SDS, 357
156. Hartmann, Margin, 40.
157. On the poster, see Joan Baez, And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir (New York, 1987), 152–53; third illustration following p. 254.
158. Baez's husband, David Harris, was a Resistance leader and went to jail. David Harris, Dreams Die Hard: Three Men's Journey Through the Sixties (New York, 1982).
159. On the Resistance, see Alice Lynd, ed., We Won't Go: Personal Accounts of War Objectors (Boston, 1968)
160. Michael Ferber and Staughton Lynd, The Resistance (Boston, 1971).
161. Miller, Democracy, 169, 172–74, 182
162. Sale, SDS, 155–56, 219, (Calvert) 318–19
163. Rorabaugh, Berkeley, 105.
164. On Chicago, see Miller, Democracy, 284–86, 295–306 (quote at 304)
165. Sale, SDS, 472–477
166. Hayden, Reunion, 293–322
167. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980).
168. The fullest account is David Farber, Chicago '68 (Chicago, 1988). “We must name that system,” said Paul Potter in a speech (1965), excerpted in Miller, Democracy, 232–33 (quote at 232)
169. see also Sale, SDS, 187–189.
170. The theme was continued in a speech by Carl Oglesby, “Trapped in a System” (1965), in Massimo Teodori, ed., The New Left: A Documentary History (Indianapolis, 1969), 1982–1988.
171. See also Sale, SDS, 242–245.
172. For Oglesby's leftward movement, see his “Notes on a Decade Ready for the Dustbin” (1969), in R. David Myers, ed., Toward a History of the New Left: Essays from Within the Movement (Brooklyn, 1989), 21–48.
173. On rising radicalism, see Miller, Democracy, 307–308
174. Sale, SDS, 203–6, 280–82, 310, 335–36, 363–64.
175. The principal factions were the National Office (Weatherman), Progressive Labor, Revolutionary Youth Movement I, and Revolutionary Youth Movement II. For a complete account, see Sale, SDS, 557–566.
176. A full account of the PL takeover is in Sale, SDS, 557–99 (Walls quote at 566).
177. Early warnings are in SDS, 210–211
178. Miller, Democracy, 67, 139.
179. Dylan's line is from “Subterranean Homesick Blues,” Bringing It Ail Back Home (1965).
180. On Weatherman, see Harold Jacobs, ed., Weatherman (Berkeley, 1970).
181. The bombing is in Thomas Powers, Diana: The Making of a Terrorist (Boston, 1971)
182. Sale, SDS, 3–5.
183. A fictionalized but psychologically correct account is offered in the film, A Small Circle of Friends (1980).
184. On male domination, see Ti-Grace Atkinson, “The Sacrifice of Lambs” (1969), in Amazon Odyssey (New York, 1974), 29
185. Myra M. Ferree and Beth B. Hess, Controversy and Coalition: The New Feminist Movement (Boston, 1985), 57–61
186. Morgan, Going Too Far, 4 (quote), 82–83, 115.
187. Miller, Democracy, 297
188. Sale, SDS, 275–76, 347–48
189. Athan G. Theoharis and John S. Cox, The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the American Inquisition (Philadelphia, 1988), 345–47, 361, 381.
190. In general, see Nelson Blackstock, COINTELPRO: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom (New York, 1988).
191. For details in one case, see Hayden, Reunion, xvii-xviii, 199–201, 283–95, 300–317, 339–45, and other FBI entries in the index.
192. For infiltrators' accounts, see William T. Divale, I Lived Inside the Campus Revolution (New York, 1970)
193. Cril Payne, Deep Cover: An FBI Agent Infiltrates the Radical Underground (New York, 1979)
194. Phillip A. Luce, The New Left (New York, 1966)
195. The New Left Today: America's Trojan Horse (Washington, D.C., 1971). Luce pretended to be a defector.
196. Miller, Democracy, 151–152
197. Morgan, Going Too Far, 61.
198. See, in general, Sale, SDS. All youth movements suffer from impatience.
199. See Lewis S. Feuer, The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York, 1969).
200. On Greensboro, see William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980)
201. Miles Wolff, Lunch at the 5 & 10, rev ed. (Chicago, 1990; originally published 1970).
202. On the response, see Giddings, When and Where, 274
203. Miller, Democracy, 34–35.
204. On SCLC see Giddings, When and Where, 268
205. Garrow, Bearing the Cross.
206. On women, see Hartmann, Margin, 24, 29–30.
207. On the civil rights movement in general, see Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington, 1987)
208. Rhoda L. Blumberg, Civil Rights: The 1960s Freedom Struggle, rev. ed. (Boston, 1991)
209. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York, 1988)
210. Meier and Rudwick, COKE
211. Robert Weisbrot, Freedom Bound: A History of America's Civil Rights Movement (New York, 1990).
212. An excellent anthology is Howell Raines, My Soul Is Rested: Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered (New York, 1977).
213. On the founding, see Giddings, When and Where, 274
214. Hartmann, Margin, 26–28
215. King, Freedom Song, 43–46
216. Lewis, King, 115–116
217. Miller, Democracy, 56.
218. In general, see Carson, In Struggle, esp. 19–21.
219. On Baker, see Shyrlee Dallard, Ella Baker: A Leader Behind the Scenes (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1990).
220. For an excellent account by a student activist, see Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York, 1968).
221. Still useful is Howard Zinn, SNCC (Boston, 1964).
222. On Mississippi, see Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (New York, 1977), 109, 180–204
223. Carson, In Struggle, 45–51, 77–81, 85–89
224. King, Freedom Song, 121–153
225. Reeves, President Kennedy, 354–364.
226. A splendid, full recent account is John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994), esp. 90–214.
227. On Evers's assassination, see Branch, Parting the Waters, 824–25, 827–33
228. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 269.
229. On the recent trial and conviction, see Adam Nossiter, Of Long Memory: Mississippi and the Murder of Medgar Evers (Reading, Mass., 1994).
230. The March on Washington is in Carson, In Struggle, 91–95
231. Giddings, When and Where, 313–314
232. King, Freedom Song, 182–185
233. Lewis, King, 214–231
234. Murray, Song, 353–354.
235. On Moses, see Eric R. Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them: Robert Parris Moses and Civil Rights in Mississippi (New York, 1994).
236. On the Summer Project, see Sally Belfrage, Freedom Summer (New York, 1965)
237. Carson, In Struggle, 96–123
238. William H. Chafe, Never Stop Running: Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (New York, 1993), 187–210
239. King, Freedom Song, 367–436
240. Dittmer, Local People, 239–271
241. Elizabeth Sutherland, ed., Letters from Mississippi (New York, 1965)
242. Mary A. Rothschild, “White Women Volunteers in the Freedom Summers,” Feminist Studies 5, no. 3 (Fall 1979)
243. Nicholas Von Hoffman, Mississippi Notebook (New York, 1964).
244. The numbers are in Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York, 1988), 4, 7, 9.
245. On the Philadelphia, Mississippi, murders, see Florence Mars, Witness in Philadelphia (Baton Rouge, 1977).
246. Mississippi Burning (1988) was a much criticized Hollywood film of this event.
247. On the Civil Rights Act, see Hugh D. Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York, 1990), 74–99, 125–52
248. Carson, In Struggle, 123–129
249. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 337.
250. See also Mark Stern, Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights (New Brunswick, 1992).
251. On the 1964 convention, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 345–351
252. Giddings, When and Where, 293–295
253. King, Freedom Song, 343–352
254. Lewis, King, 252–253.
255. On Voting Rights, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 389, 395, 400, 406–8, 411
256. Graham, Civil Rights, 162–176
257. Lewis, King, 269, 277, 283–85, 294.
258. On the long-term consequences, see Frank R. Parker, Black Votes Count: Political Empowerment in Mississippi (Chapel Hill, 1990).
259. On Selma, see David J. Garrow, Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (New Haven, 1978)
260. Lewis, King, 264–293.
261. On Watts, see Robert Conot, Rivers of Blood, Years of Darkness (New York, 1967).
262. On nationalism, see George Breitman, The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York, 1967), 147
263. Carson, In Struggle, 204–5, 217, 219–20
264. King, Freedom Song, 533
265. John H. Bracey Jr., August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis, 1970)
266. On Jones, see Hettie Jones, How I Became Hettie Jones (New York, 1990).
267. David L. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race (New York, 1993)
268. Martin B. Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York, 1988).
269. On music, see The Rolling Stone Rock Almanac (New York, 1983).
270. On Black Muslims, see Giddings, When and Where, 318
271. Louis E. Lomax, When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World (Cleveland, 1963).
272. On Malcolm X, see Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York, 1965)
273. Breitman, Last Year. See also Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements, ed. George Breitman (New York, 1965).
274. On the laws, see Carson, In Struggle, 141–42, 235.
275. On disintegration, see In Struggle, 137, 181, 186
276. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 423–424
277. Hayden, Reunion, 162–163
278. King, Freedom Song, 432, 442, 476
279. Lewis, King, 248–51, 286–87.
280. On the Great Society, see Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1984), 217–271.
281. On NWRO, see Freeman, Politics, 73–74
282. Giddings, When and Where, 304
283. Hartmann, Margin, 36–38.
284. See also Guida West, The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women (New York, 1981).
285. The sociologists Cloward and Piven argued that such pressure, including an all-out effort by eligible poor people to receive benefits, would force the political system to respond to poverty in a serious way. The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women, 23–32, 37
286. Hartmann, Margin, 36
287. Richard A. Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, “A Strategy to End Poverty,” The Nation, May 1966.
288. On the Poor People's Campaign, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 582–83, 591, 595–99, 607–9
289. Giddings, When and Where, 304, 312
290. Hayden, Reunion, 259–261
291. Matusow, Unraveling, 396–397.
292. See also Ralph Abemathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York, 1989).
293. Carson, In Struggle, 128, 175–90
294. Evans, Personal Politics, 95–98
295. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 424
296. King, Freedom Song, 494–496
297. Sale, SDS, 125n.
298. See also James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries: A Personal Account (New York, 1972)
299. Herbert H. Haines, Block Radicals and the Civil Rights Mainstream, 1954–1970 (Knoxville, 1988)
300. Cleveland Sellers, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC (New York, 1973).
301. Carson, In Struggle, 219
302. Evans, Personal Politics, 97
303. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 481–83, 492
304. Giddings, When and Where, 315
305. Hartmann, Margin, 33
306. Hayden, Reunion, 162
307. King, Freedom Song, 500–501, 503–4, 506–7
308. Murray, Song, 402.
309. On separatism, see Carson, In Struggle, 191–211
310. King, Freedom Song, 502–4, 510.
311. In general, see Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York, 1967)
312. Stokely Carmichael, Stokely Speaks: Black Power Back to Pan-Africanism (New York, 1971).
313. On black power, see Carson, In Struggle, 127–28, 209–10, 215–28
314. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 481–82, 484–85, 487–88, 490–92, 532–34.
315. See also William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago, 1992).
316. On the Great Society, see Matusow, Unraveling, 217–271
317. Carson, In Struggle, 169
318. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 535
319. Hayden, Reunion, 261.
320. Matusow, Unraveling, 110–13, 124–26, 244–70
321. Carson, In Struggle, 238–39; 258–60
322. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 538–41, 545
323. Miller, Democracy, 271
324. West, Welfare, 20–22.
325. Carson, In Struggle, 216, 223, 233–34
326. Garrow, Bearing, 481–482
327. Hayden, Reunion, 163.
328. On Carmichael, see Carson, In Struggle, 227, 230, 237–38, 243, 251
329. Giddings, When and Where, 315
330. Hayden, Reunion, 163–165.
331. On Brown, see Reunion, 163
332. Giddings, When and Where, 315
333. Carson, In Struggle, 244, 252–57, 259–60.
334. On Karenga, see In Struggle, 281, 283, 288
335. Davis, Autobiography, 161, 194
336. Giddings, When and Where, 316.
337. Giddings, When and Where, 317
338. Davis, Autobiography, 163–185.
339. In general, see Eldridge Cleaver, Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, ed. Robert Scheer (New York, 1969)
340. Huey P. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide (New York, 1973)
341. Bobby Seale, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York, 1978).
342. See also Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York, 1992).
343. Two useful surveys are Reginald Major, A Panther Is a Black Cat (New York, 1971)
344. Gene Marine, The Black Panthers (New York, 1969).
345. On the appeal to the white Left, see Gitlin, Sixties, 348–351
346. Hayden, Reunion, 308–309
347. Morgan, Going Too Far, 94.
348. A droll treatment is provided in Tom Wolfe, Radical Chic and Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers (New York, 1970).
349. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 47
350. Hartmann, Margin, 33
351. bell hooks, Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Boston, 1981), 5–9.
352. Carson, In Struggle, 222, 224, 226
353. Hayden, Reunion, 161, 164
354. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 391, 395–96.
355. On COINTELPRO, see Carson, In Struggle, 284, 288.
356. See also U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports of Intelligence Activities and Rights of Americans, Book 3 (Washington, D.C., 1976), 185–224 (commonly called the Church Report).
357. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, 1956), vii. Stampp's statement attracted little notice until the 1960s, when he felt compelled to add an explanatory note. In recent editions the note has been incorporated in the text.
358. On race and gender, see Vivian Gornick, “The Next Great Moment in History Is Theirs” (1969), in her Essays in Feminism (New York, 1978), 5–9
359. King, Freedom Song, 468, 470–71.
360. On women in civil rights, see Freedom Song, 261–62, 469–70
361. Giddings, When and Where, 278–81, 285–87.
362. On Hamer, see When and Where, 287–290
363. Carson, In Struggle, 73–74
364. King, Freedom Song, 140–144.
365. On the 1950s, see Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social Movement and Its Relation to the Policy Process (New York, 1975), 24–27, 32
366. Harrison, Account, xi, 171–172
367. Elaine T. May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988).
368. For a different interpretation, see Leila J. Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survived in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York, 1987), 194–195.
369. Freeman, Politics, 17, 24, 29–34
370. Klein, Gender Politics, 50–55.
371. On divorce, see Gender Politics, 69–74, 79
372. Hartmann, Margin, 23.
373. Two books spurred change: Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (trans., New York, 1953; orig. Paris, 1949)
374. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York, 1963).
375. Roosevelt also opposed the ERA. Harrison, Account, 73–80, 83, 85–87, 109–37
376. Freeman, Politics, 52
377. Reeves, Kennedy, 433
378. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 166–174.
379. On the ERA, see Harrison, Account, 125–26, 129, 134
380. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 351–352
381. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 169, 171.
382. On the Equal Pay Act, see Freeman, Politics, 171, 175–76
383. Harrison, Account, 87, 89–105
384. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 175.
385. On networks, see Freeman, Politics, 48, 52, 65–67
386. Harrison, Account, 165.
387. The two groups are Account, 159, 174.
388. On Friedan, see Harrison, Account, 159, 171–72
389. King, Freedom Song, 78.
390. On state commissions, see Harrison, Account, 161, 185.
391. On Title VII, see Account, 177–181
392. Freeman, Politics, 54, 171
393. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 357
394. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 176–178.
395. The most complete account is Carl M. Brauer, “Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” Journal of Southern History 49 (1983): 37–56.
396. See also Graham, Civil Rights, 134–140.
397. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 54
398. Freeman, Politics, 179, 181, 184–85
399. Harrison, Account, 187, 192
400. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 366
401. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 179.
402. In general, see Graham, Civil Rights, 205–232.
403. On newspaper ads, see Freeman, Politics, 77–79
404. Harrison, Account, 188–190.
405. Freeman, Politics, 54–55
406. Giddings, When and Where, 303–304
407. Graham, Civil Rights, 225–228
408. Harrison, Account, 191–197
409. Murray, Song in a Weary Throat, 366–368
410. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 180.
411. For the inside story, see Betty Friedan, It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (New York, 1976), 75–91.
412. Freeman, Politics, 56, 75–76, 80–81, 97–99
413. Harrison, Account, 197–208
414. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 181–183
415. “NOW Bill of Rights” (1967), in Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful (New York, 1970), 512–514.
416. On Murray, see Giddings, When and Where, 304
417. Harrison, Account, 126, 134
418. Rupp and Taylor, Survival, 173
419. in general, Murray, Song in a Weary Throat.
420. On black women, see Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 58
421. Freeman, Politics, 40–42
422. Giddings, When and Where, 302, 307
423. Hartmann, Margin, 32
424. King, Freedom Song, 462–464
425. Morgan, Sisterhood, xxvi, xxviii.
426. Evans, Personal Politics, 46, 78–81
427. King, Freedom Song, 75–76, 124, 126, 464–66.
428. Evans, Personal Politics, 56–57
429. Hartmann, Margin, 32
430. King, Freedom Song, 172, 288, 442–55.
431. On ideas, see Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 45–47
432. Freeman, Politics, 28
433. King, Freedom Song, 76–78, 172.
434. On religion, see Freedom Song, 54–55, 274–76
435. Evans, Personal Politics, 28–36.
436. On southerners, see David L. Chappell, Inside Agitators: White Southerners in the Civil Rights Movement (Baltimore, 1994).
437. On pressure, see Evans, Personal Politics, 79, 94
438. Freeman, Politics, 143–144
439. King, Freeman Song, 488, 492–96, 510–18, 530–33
440. Morgan, Going Too Far, 14.
441. On ideas, see Freeman, Politics, 28, 51
442. Morgan, Going Too Far, 102–103.
443. On Waveland, see Evans, Personal Politics, 85–88 (Carmichael quote at 87)
444. Freeman, Politics, 57
445. Giddings, When and Where, 302
446. King, Freedom Song, 442–55. The memo is reprinted at 567–69.
447. On early SDS, see Evans, Personal Politics, 108
448. Gitlin, Sixties, 364–65, 368
449. Hayden, Reunion, 107–108.
450. On WSP, see Gitlin, Sixties, 92–93, 99, 181, 265, 293
451. Hartmann, Margin, 41–42
452. Amy Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace: Traditional Motherhood and Radical Politics in the 1960s (Chicago, 1993).
453. On rights activists, see Evans, Personal Politics, 89, 97–99
454. Giddings, When and Where, 303
455. Hartmann, Margin, 33
456. King, Freedom Song, 499.
457. On Urbana, see Evans, Personal Politics, 101, 156–57, 162–66
458. Freeman, Politics, 57
459. Giddings, When and Where, 303
460. Gitlin, Sixties, 369–370
461. Sale, SDS, 252.
462. On the 1967 meeting, see Freeman, Politics, 58
463. Gitlin, Sixties, 370–371
464. Sale, SDS, 362.
465. The cartoon is in New Left Notes, 10 July 1967.
466. On NCNP, see Evans, Personal Politics, 196–198
467. Freeman, Politics, 60.
468. Evans, Personal Politics, 124, 200, 205–6, 214–15.
469. On Freeman, see Freeman, Politics, vii-xi, 109–11.
470. On consciousness-raising, see Politics, 117
471. Gitlin, Sixties, 371
472. Hayden, Reunion, 421.
473. On Miss America, see Freeman, Politics, 112–13, 150
474. Morgan, Sisterhood, 521–524
475. Morgan, Going Too Far, 62–67.
476. On the press, see Going Too Far, 63.
477. On WITCH, see Going Too Far, 71–81
478. Morgan, Sisterhood, 538–553
479. Evans, Personal Politics, 224
480. Gitlin, Sixties, 362–64 (quote at 363), 373.
481. Rat is in Morgan, Going Too Far, 116 (“Goodbye to All That” [1970]), 123–30 (quote at 130).
482. Ferree and Hess, Controversy, 27, 35
483. Freeman, Politics, 9
484. Harrison, Account, ix, 220
485. King, Freedom Song, 458
486. Morgan, Sisterhood, xxii.
487. Gornick, “Next Great Moment,” 21–22
488. Morgan, Sisterhood, xxiii
489. Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (1968 speech quoted), 5.
490. A good introduction to radical feminism is Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis, 1989).
491. Freeman, Politics, 103–108
492. Morgan, Going Too Far, 60–61.
493. “We are all still imprisoned by Marx,” wrote Ti-Grace Atkinson in Amazon Odyssey, xxiii.
494. Freeman, Politics, 108
495. Evans, Personal Politics, 66–68.
496. Perhaps the most vivid exception in terms of violence was Valerie Solanis, “Excerpts from the SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) Manifesto,” (1968), in Morgan, Sisterhood, 514–519.
497. In June 1968, Solanis put her theory into practice by shooting Andy Warhol. Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey, 107n.