The double-edged sword of sovereignty by the Barrel: How Native nations can wield environmental justice in the fight against the harms of fracking

UCLA Law Review

Volumn 63, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 1818-1860

  Thompson, Geneva E B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 85012965304     PISSN: 00415650     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Zachary Toliver, Tribes Collect Millions in Oil Revenue: Three Affiliated Tribes Set to Collect $184 Million in Revenue; Money to be Used for Infrastructure, MHA NATION NEWS (Apr. 24, 2014), http://www.mhanation.com/main2/Home-News/Home-News-2014/News-2014-04-April/news-2014-april-24-tribes-collect-millions-in-oil-revenue-three-affiliated-tribes-set-to-col lect-184million-in-revenue-money-to-be-used-for-infrastructure.html [https://perma.cc/27 XF-JSCQ].
2. See generally Clifford Rechtschaffen, Overview of the Environmental Justice Movement, in ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: LAW, POLICY, AND REGULATIONS 3 (Clifford Rechtschaffen et al. Eds., 2009).
3. Robert R. Kuehn, A Taxonomy of Environmental Justice, in ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: LAW, POLICY, AND REGULATIONS 6, 8 (Clifford Rechtschaffen et al. Eds., 2009);
4. see also Sandi B. Zellmer, Indian Lands as Critical Habitat for Indian Nations and Endangered Species: Tribal Survival and Sovereignty Come First, 43 S. D. L. REV. 381, 426-28 (1998) (discussing the problem of listing Native reservations as critical habitats of endangered species because it forces Nations to forgo economic opportunities and places disproportionate conservation burdens on Natives when the endangered species were brought to the brink of extinction by non-Native development). The distributive justice solution requires "burdens of conservation to be borne by those who have benefitted from activities which drove species toward extinction"
5. Kristen Marttila Gast, Note, Environmental Justice and Indigenous Peoples in the United States: An International Human Rights Analysis, 14 TRANSNAT'LL. &COMTEMP. PROBS. 253, 257 (2004).
6. Uma Outka, Comment, Environmental Injustice and the Problem of the Law, 57 ME. L. REV. 209, 216 (2005).
7. see also Guardians Ass'n v. Civil Serv. Comm'n, 463 U. S. 582 (1983) (requiring the same proof of intent to discriminate in order to establish a claim under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964);
8. Arlington Heights v. Metro. Hous. Dev. Corp., 429 U. S. 252 (1977) (creating a higher burden for plaintiffs to establish a Fourteenth Amendment claim by requiring proof of intent to discriminate in addition to proof of a governmental action's disproportionate effect on a racial group);
9. Washington v. Davis, 426 U. S. 229 (1976) (determining the respondents must prove the facially neutral performance test was actually a purposeful device to discriminate to prove an infringement on their constitutional rights);
10. Morton v. Mancari, 417 U. S. 535, 553 (1974) (holding that the Bureau of Indian Affairs's preferential hiring of Natives from federally recognized tribes was not a racial classification, but rather a political one).
11. (citing Luke W. Cole, Empowerment as the Key to Environmental Protection: The Need for Environmental Poverty Law, 19 ECOLOGY L. Q. 619, 643 (1992)) ("[P]ollutant levels that are literally killing peopledo not necessarily violate our environmental laws.").
12. Cap and trade programs (the buying and selling of saved emission credits, while the federal government simultaneously lowers the cap of emissions allowed to enter the atmosphere), differing levels of technology-based standards, and varying degrees of permissible emitted pollutants and toxins described in the Clean Air Act (CAA) encourage industries to transfer pollutants and develop in areas already containing similar industries, thus subjecting some communities to all pollutants and not equally distributing the harms. Lea Lambert, Trading Rights for Greenhouse Gases: The Dilemma of Cap-and-Trade and Environmental Justice, 24 GEO. MASON U. CIV. RTS. L. J. 205, 221 (2014). "[E]nvironmental justice advocates claim an unconstrained market system will, at a minimum, fail to realize the full benefits of co-pollutant reduction and, at a maximum, worsen the current pattern of inequality. In an emissions trading system, the industrial business owners and the market ultimately control where emissions reductions occur on a localized level"
13. Contra Joseph Lam, Coupling Environmental Justice With Carbon Trading, 12 SUSTAINABLE DEV. L. & POL'Y 40, 40-41 (2012) ("[E]nvironmental justice and cap and trade can actually be harmonized... [with] a more robust and nuanced cap and trade system that promotes principles of public participation, equity, and empowerment, while still maintaining an optimal and efficient market-based system. In fact, a cap and trade program could even be used to spur on environmental justice.").
14. Angela R. Riley, "Straight Stealing": Towards an Indigenous System of Cultural Property Protection, 80 WASH. L. REV. 69, 92 (2005). "In the United States, where American Indians enjoy a sovereign status vis-à-vis the federal government, the development and/or revitalization of tribal legal systems is an integral part of tribal life. American Indians govern themselves by tribal law through various institutional forms, including, among others, tribal councils, tribal courts, and tribal peacemaking systems"
15. Kristen A. Carpenter et al., In Defense of Property, 118 YALE L. J. 1022, 1112 (2009). "[A] common understanding shared by many of the world's indigenous peoples: As a people, they literally came from the land, are defined by the land, and have a responsibility to the earth that is integral to their identity as peoples. As one scholar writes, 'Tribal cultures, from the time of their creation, have been formed, shaped, and renewed in relationship with mountains, mesas, lakes, rivers, and other places that are imbued with the spirituality, history, knowledge, and identity of the people.'"
16. Lee Allen, Pray for Arizona's Mount Graham During National Sacred Places Prayer Days, INDIAN COUNTRY TODAY MEDIA NETWORK (June 18, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedia network.com/2012/06/18/pray-arizonas-mount-graham-during-national-sacred-places-prayerdays-119122 [https://perma.cc/8LCB-UG6E].
17. Chronology of Apache Opposition to Astronomy Development on Mt. Graham, NA MAKA OKA AINA, http://www.mauna-a-wakea.info/maunakea/H1-chronology.html [https://perma.cc/HQ47- QHEZ] [hereinafter Chronology of Apache Opposition]. Anthropological scholar Dr. Keith Basso stated in one of the various court proceedings, "[a]s interpreted by the Apache, damage to Mount Graham would certainly result in damage to themselves, for damage to the mountain could only be seen as a display of profound disrespect. Such disrespect would precipitate a lasting disruption in the workings of the universe, and this in turn would bring serious harm to persons living within it. In short, permanent damage to Mount Graham would be construed by the Apache as an act of religious desecration, of wanton and gratuitous defilement, and its shattering repercussions would be numerous and profound"
18. Chronology of Apache Opposition, supra note 28. The U. S. Laws-National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA), National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), and Endangered Species Act (ESA) -require a certain level of cultural studies and consultation with local Native nations harmed by federal projects and programs.
19. Apache Survival Coal. V. United States, 21 F.3d 895, 905 (9th Cir. 1994).
20. (quoting Lathan v. Brinegar, 506 F.2d 677, 692 (9th Cir. 1974)).
21. For environmental cases, the latches criteria must be applied sparingly in suits brought to vindicate the public interest. Apache Survival Coal., 21 F.3d at 905
22. (quoting Preservation Coal., Inc. V. Pierce, 667 F.2d 851, 854 (9th Cir. 1982)). While determining the district court incorrectly did not do a latches analysis, after reviewing the facts the Ninth Circuit ruled the petitioners were barred by latches and ruled in favor of the respondents.
23. See generally Chronology of Apache Opposition, supra note 28, for a full discussion of the timeline of the Dzil Nchaa Si'An controversy.
24. After witnessing the legal controversy, one scholar noted, "[E]nvironmental law has been colonized by a perverse system of values which is antithetical to achieving environmental justice for American Indian peoples...." Robert A. Williams, Jr., Large Binocular Telescopes, Red Squirrel Pinatas, and Apache Sacred Mountains: Decolonizing Environmental Law in a Multicultural World, in ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: LAW, POLICY, AND REGULATIONS 111 (Clifford Rechtschaffen et al. Eds., 2009).
25. Ada Pecos Melton, Indigenous Justice Systems and Tribal Society, in JUSTICE AS HEALING INDIGENOUS WAYS 108, 110-12 (Wanda D. McCaslin ed., 2005).
26. Dean B. Suagee, Turtle's War Party: An Indian Allegory on Environmental Justice, 9 J. ENVTL. L. & LITIG. 461, 465 (1994).
27. Kyle W. La Londe, Who Wants to Be an Environmental Justice Advocate?: Options for Bringing an Environmental Justice Complaint in the Wake of Alexander v. Sandoval, 31 B. C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 27, 50 (2004).
28. Ethan Davis, An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal, 50 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 49, 50 (2008-10) (discussing the interrelationships among layers of administrative laws producing the tragic result of the Trail of Tears).
29. See generally FRANK POMMERSHEIM, BROKEN LANDSCAPE: INDIANS, INDIAN TRIBES, AND THE CONSTITUTION (Oxford University Press ed., 2009).
30. Erik S. Laakkonen, Up in Smoke? Narragansett, Hicks, and the Erosion of Tribal Sovereign Immunity, 11 J. GENDER RACE & JUST. 453, 453-54 (2008).
31. History: The Goshutes, UTAH AM. INDIAN DIGITAL ARCHIVE, http://www.utahindians.org/archives/goshute/history.html [https://perma.cc/8N9Y-8GTE].
32. See Sierra M. Jefferies, Note, Environmental Justice and the Skull Valley Goshute Indians' Proposal to Store Nuclear Waste, 27 J. LAND, RESOURCES & ENVTL. L. 409, 409-10 (2007).
33. Hannah Wittmeyer, Fracking on Indian Reservations, FRACKWIRE (June 14, 2013), http://frackwire.com/fracking-on-indian-reservations [https://perma.cc/38UB-AKG8] (explaining that the Blackfeet and Crow Nations in Montana, the Ute Nation in Utah, and the Southern Utes in Colorado are all leasing lands to fracking).
34. Mike Malfettone, Note, A Nation Fractured: Drilling Into the Debate Over Fracking, 2 ARIZ. J. ENVTL. L. &POL'Y 1039, 1039 (2011).
35. Joe Schremmer, Note, Avoidable "Fraccident": An Argument Against Strict Liability for Hydraulic Fracking, 60 U. KAN. L. REV. 1215, 1219-20 (2012) (discussing the three-step process of fracking: (1) injecting fracking fluid to break the rock; (2) injecting proppants (sand) to hold fractures permanently; and (3) back flushing the fracking fluids back to the surface, leaving the proppants behind).
36. MATTHEW MCFEELEY, NAT'L RESOURCES DEF. COUNS., STATE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING DISCLOSURE RULES AND ENFORCEMENT: A COMPARISON (July 2012), http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/fracking-disclosure-IB.pdf [https://perma.cc/GJU2-6X7C].
37. see also Michael N. Mills & Robin B. Seifried, What Is Fracking Wastewater and How Should We Manage It?, 28 NAT. RESOURCES & ENV'T 9, 10 (Winter 2014) (stating that wastewater is generally composed of 95 percent water, 4.5 percent proppants (solid materials like sand used to keep fractures open), and 0.5 percent chemical additives).
38. See generally Jake Hays & Seth B. C. Shonkoff, Toward an Understanding of the Environmental and Public Health Impacts of Unconventional Natural Gas Development: A Categorical Assessment of the Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature, 2009-2015, 11 PLoS ONE 1(2016), http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/asset?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone. 0154164. PDF (discussing how out of 685 peer reviewed scientific journal publications "84% of public health studies contain findings that indicate public health hazards, elevated risks, or adverse health outcomes; 69% of water quality studies contain findings that indicate potential, positive association, or actual incidence of water contamination; and 87% of air quality studies contain findings that indicate elevated air pollutant emissions and/or atmospheric concentrations.").
39. MINORITY STAFF OF H. R. COMM. ON ENERGY & COMMERCE, 112TH CONG., CHEMICALS USED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING 1(2011), http://www.conservation. Ca.gov/dog/general-information/Documents/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Report%204%2018%2011.pd f [https://perma.cc/958A-XK62] ("Between 2005 and 2009, the oil and gas service companies used hydraulic fracturing products containing 29 chemicals that are (1) known or possible human carcinogens, (2) regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act for their risks to human health, or (3) listed as hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act. These 29 chemicals were components of more than 650 different products used in hydraulic fracturing.").
40. See EPA, EVALUATION OF IMPACTS TO UNDERGROUND SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF COALBED METHANE RESERVOIRS (June 2004), https://fracfocus.org/sites/default/files/publications/evaluation-of-impacts-to-underground-sources-of-drinking-water-by-hydrau lic-fracturing-of-coalbed-methane-reservoirs.pdf.
41. The EPA's most recent executive summary for an upcoming study finds that "there are above and below ground mechanisms by which hydraulic fracturing activities have the potential to impact drinking water resources," but there have not been "widespread, systemic impacts on drinking water resources in the United States." EPA, ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FOR OIL AND GAS ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY, at ES-6 (June 2015), https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/hf-es-erd-jun2015.pdf [https://perma.cc/ZA2N-RAM3].
42. see also Natural Gas Extraction-Hydraulic Fracturing, EPA (Mar. 25, 2015), http://www2.epa.gov/hydraulicfracturing [https://perma.cc/94XQ-F3DE] (discussing the effects of the EPA's study on the fracking industries and related environmental and health concerns).
43. Steve Rushton, Is There Any Scientific Study-Not Sponsored by Industry-That Asserts Fracking Is Safe?, OCCUPY. COM (July 23, 2014), http://www.occupy.com/article/there-any-scientific-study- %E2%80%93-not-sponsored-industry-%E2%80%93-asserts-fracking-safe [https://perma.cc/ASA2-N6J4].
44. For example, Wyoming became the first state to require full disclosure of fracking chemicals. See Jacquelyn Pless, Fracking Update: What States Are Doing to Ensure Safe Natural Gas Extraction, NAT'L CONGRESS ST. LEGISLATURES (July 2011), http://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/fracking-update-what-states-are-doing.aspx [https://perma.cc/QK9U-B6GN]. In addition, many local governments, including Denton, Texas, are amending their zoning codes to ban fracking.
45. Alex Dropkin & Terrence Henry, How the Denton Fracking Ban Could Work, NPR, https://stateimpact.npr.org/texas/tag/denton [https://perma.cc/N7VT-Z245].
46. VT. STAT. ANN. Tit. 29, § 571 (2011) ("Hydraulic fracturing; prohibition (a) No person may engage in hydraulic fracturing in the State. (b) No person within the State may collect, store, or treat wastewater from hydraulic fracturing.");
47. State Fracking Regulations, ALS, http://www.alsglobal.com/en/Our-Services/Life-Sciences/Environmental/Capabilities/North-America-Capabilities/USA/Oil-and-Gasoline-Testing/Oil-and-Gas-Production-and-Midstream-Support/Fracking-Regulations-by-State [https://perma.cc/4BHX-9T47] (general discussion of the fracking regulations in North Dakota);
48. see also Rules and Regulations, N. D. INDUS. COMMISSION, https://www.dmr.nd.gov/oilgas/rules/rulebook.pdf [https://perma.cc/LGG 4-URYR].
49. Norse Energy Corp. V. Town of Dryden, 108 A. D.3d 25 (N. Y. App. Div. 2013).
50. See generally Kerstie B. Moran, The Bureau of Land Management's Finalized Hydraulic Fracturing Rule on Tribal Lands: A Responsibility or Intrusion?, 39 AM. INDIAN L. R. 585 (2015). The goals of the final ruling are to "ensure that wells are properly constructed to protect water supplies, to make certain that the fluids that flow back to the surface... Are managed in an environmentally responsible way, and to provide public discourse of the chemicals used.."
51. Hydraulic Fracturing on Federal & Indian Lands, 80 Fed. Reg. 16, 128 (Mar. 26, 2015)
52. (to be codified at 43 C. F. R. Pt. 1430).
53. Boom and Bust Cycle, INVESTOPEDIA, http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/boom-and-bustcycle.asp [https://perma.cc/K2WY-GUA9].
54. Terry L. Karl, Oil-Led Development: Social, Political, and Economic Consequences 4-5 (Ctr. On Democracy, Dev., & the Rule of Law, Working Paper No. 80, 2007).
55. See Angela R. Riley, Good (Native) Governance, 107 COLUM. L. REV. 1049, 1054-55 (2007).
56. 500 Nations Indian Casinos SuperSite!, 500 NATIONS, http://500nations.com/Indian-Casinos.asp [https://perma.cc/9WMM-FBUT].
57. Native American Development Corporation, NADC, http://www.nadc-nabn.org [https://perma.cc/5GKR-K4A5].
58. Welcome to the Navajo Nation!, DISCOVER NAVAJO, http://www.discovernavajo.com [https://perma.cc/73YT-EZJS].
59. About Us, SOUTHERN UTE INDIAN TRIBE GROWTH FUND, http://www.sugf.com/AboutUs.aspx [https://perma.cc/F9GR-ABHB].
60. Business Areas, SOUTHERN UTE INDIAN TRIBE GROWTH FUND, http://www.sugf.com/BusinessAreas.aspx [https://perma.cc/QCN9-Q2JQ].
61. Montana v. United States, 450 U. S5. 544, 564 (1981) (holding that Native nations do not have regulatory jurisdiction over nonmembers on fee simple land).
62. Philip H. Tinker, In Search of a Civil Solution: Tribal Authority to Regulate Nonmember Conduct in Indian Country, 50 TULSA L. REV. 193, 199 (2014).
63. Montana, 450 U. S. At 564.
64. (citing two Tenth Circuit cases: McArthur v. San Juan Cty., 309 F.3d 1216, 1223 (10th Cir. 2002) and Crowe & Dunlevy v. Stidham, 640 F.3d 1140 (10th Cir. 2011) (both cases discussing the nexus test for the first Montana exception)).
65. 532 U. S. 645 (2001).
66. See Dollar General Corp. V. Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, No. 13-1496, 2016 WL 3434397 (U. S. June 23, 2016).
67. Montana v. United States, 450 U. S. 544, 566 (1981).
68. Plains Commerce Bank v. Long Family Land & Cattle Co., 554 U. S. 316, 341 (2008).
69. Strate v. A-1 Contractors, 520 U. S. 438, 459 (1997).
70. (citing Water Wheel Camp Recreational Area, Inc. V. LaRance, 642 F.3d 802, 19 (9th Cir. 2011) (holding that the tribal courts had adjudicative jurisdiction under Montana II for tenant trespass claims));
71. see also Attorney's Process and Investigation Servs., Inc. V. Sac & Fox Tribe of the Miss. In Iowa, 609 F.3d 927, 939 (8th Cir. 2010) (holding that the tribal courts had adjudicative jurisdiction under Montana II in a claim against private security contractors who had raided the Nation's government with the intent to seize control).
72. The D. C. Circuit upheld the EPA's delegation authority to regulate air quality on all land within reservations, including fee land held by private landowners who are not tribe members. Arizona Pub. Serv. Co. V. EPA, 211 F.3d 1280, 1284 (D. C. Cir. 2000).
73. Heather J. Tanana & John C. Ruple, Energy Development in Indian Country: Working Within the Realm of Indian Law and Moving Towards Collaboration, 4432 UTAH ENVTL. L. REV. 1, 21 (2012).
74. see also Wisconsin v. EPA, 266 F.3d 741, 750 (7th Cir. 2001)
75. ww, cert. Denied, 535 U. S. 1121 (2002) (holding that the EPA correctly granted TAS status under the second Montana exception to Mole Lake Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians to regulate their water on Mole Lake Reservation);
76. Montana v. EPA, 137 F.3d 1135, 1142 (9th Cir. 1998)
77. cert. Denied, 525 U. S. 921 (1998)
78. United States v. Mazurie, 419 U. S. 544 (1975).
79. It is unclear how the Supreme Court will rule on Montana exception cases in the environmental law context. The Supreme Court has denied cert for all environmental cases challenging the Montana II exception. Further, the equally divided court in Dollar General gives no insight on how the Court would apply a Montana I exception. Theoretically, contractually binding nonmember oil and gas companies under Native nations' environmental regulations survive any jurisdictional legal challenges under both Montana exceptions. Cf. H. Scott Althouse, Idaho Nibbles at Montana: Carving Out a Third Exception for Tribal Jurisdiction Over Environmental and Natural Resource Management, 31 ENVTL. L.# 721 (2001) (discussing the Montana exceptions and advocating for a third exception directly relating to Native jurisdiction over environmental and natural resource management).
80. Bradford D. Cooley, The Navajo Uranium Ban: Tribal Sovereignty v. National Energy Demands, 26 J. LAND, RESOURCES, &ENVTL. L. 393, 395 (2006).
81. NAVAJO NATION ENVTL. PROTECTION AGENCY, UNIFORM REGULATIONS FOR PERMIT REVIEW, ADMINISTRATIVE ENFORCEMENT ORDERS, HEARINGS, AND RULEMAKING UNDER NAVAJO NATION ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS § 101, http://www.navajonationepa.org/Pdf%20files/Uniform.pdf [https://perma.cc/26NL-SMTK].
82. NAVAJO NATION ENVTL. PROTECTION AGENCY, NAVAJO NATION CLEAN WATER ACT §§ 103 (a) (3) - (4), http://www.navajonationepa.org/Pdf%20files/Clean%20Water.pdf [https://perma.cc/26NL-SMTK].
83. Anne Minard, Navajo Nation Slams Door on Deal That Would Have Allowed Uranium Mining, INDIAN COUNTRY TODAY MEDIA NETWORK (Aug. 1, 2014), http://indiancountrytoday medianetwork.com/2014/08/01/navajo-nation-slams-door-deal-would-have-allowed-uraniummining-156143 [https://perma.cc/Q4QA-6EXF].
84. See generally Shelby Bohnenkamp et al., Concerns of the North Dakota Bakken Oil Counties: Extension Service and Other Organizations' Program Responses to These Concerns (Aug. 2011), https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/ccv/documents/bakken-oil-concerns [https://perma.cc/G4X7-H9GR] (providing a detailed account of the concerns surrounding the boom and bust economy associated with oil and gas extraction in the Bakken oil fields).
85. George Lerner & Christof Putzel, Tribal Environmental Director: 'We Are Not Equipped' for N. D. Oil Boom, AL JAZEERA AM. (May 16, 2015, 8:15 PM) http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2015/5/16/tribal-environmental-director-we-are-not-equippedfor-nd-oil-boom.html [https://perma.cc/UH6D-HM64].
86. See, e.g., ELIZABETH A. FENN, ENCOUNTERS AT THE HEART OF THE WORLD: A HISTORY OFTHE MANDAN PEOPLE 33-36 (2014).
87. ROY W. MEYER, THE VILLAGE INDIANS OF THE UPPER MISSOURI: THE MANDANS, HIDATASA, AND ARIKARAS xi-xii (1977).
88. See, e.g., SUZANNE COONAN ET AL., FIVER RIVERS CONSULTING, SUSTAINABLE PROSPERITY: BUILDING A BRIDGE TO A BRIGHTER TOMORROW (2012), http://www.visionwestnd.com/documents/MHANationSustainableProsperityReportFinalVersion-2.pdf [https://perma.cc/RGG2-YFYY].
89. Phil Davies, Bakken Has Brought Prosperity, Challenges, to Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, FAIR FIELD SUN TIMES (Nov. 20, 2014, 2:46 PM), http://www.fairfieldsuntimes.com/business/article-994375e8-69e3-11e4-82f2-57ff0a29cc9f.html [https://perma.cc/H7YV-25JH].
90. Winona Laduke, 'Unspeakable Poverty of Loss': Intergenerational Trauma and the Bakken Oil Fields, INDIAN COUNTRY TODAY MEDIA NETWORK (Oct. 8, 2014), http://indiancountry todaymedianetwork.com/2014/10/08/unspeakable-poverty-loss-intergenerational-trauma-andbakken-oil-fields-157243?nopaging=1 [https://perma.cc/XQZ4-KAS8].
91. Tim McDonnell, How 3, 500 Voters in North Dakota Could Put the Brakes on America's Biggest Fracking Boom, MOTHER JONES (Nov. 3, 2014, 6:23 PM) http://www.motherjones.com/print/263811 [https://perma.cc/NLH2-9X8J]. Lynn Helms, head of the North Dakota Department of Mineral Resources, said: "Both candidates are less friendly to rapid development than the current administration," and she expressed a deep concern the election would "put a noticeable freeze" on the area's oil development.
92. Priorities Set for New MHA Chairman, KXNEWS (Nov. 26, 2014, 4:49 PM), http://www.kxnet.com/story/27432889/priorities-set-for-new-mha-chairman [https://perma.cc/JW8N-SW78].
93. MANDAN HIDATSA & ARIKARA NATION, ETHICS IN GOVERNMENT ORDINANCE § III (A) (2008) (on file with author). The ethics committee allows for public complaints and has in place administrative hearing procedures with an appeal process to the Fort Berthold District Courts.
94. Priorities Set for New MHA Chairman, supra note 168. This is an improvement, because previously two-thirds of oil taxes went to North Dakota. Id.
95. OIL AND GAS TAX AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE THREE AFFILIATED TRIBES AND STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA (June 21, 2013), https://www.nd.gov/tax/data/upfiles/media/oilgastax agreement.pdf?20160225203246 [https://perma.cc/2QTD-MT42].
96. See, e.g., Sari Horwitz, Dark Side of the Boom, WASH. POST (Sept. 28, 2014), http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2014/09/28/dark-side-of-the-boom [https://perma.cc/XC5G-NEJ5].
97. See generally Nikke Alex, Dark Side of Oil Development: Bakken Oil Boom Pumping Sexual Violence Into Fort Berthold Reservation, MISS NIKKE BLOG, http://missnikke.com/post/108614556446/dark-side-of-development-bakken-oil-boom-pumping [https://perma.cc/6JN2-JY66].
98. Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013, Pub. L. No. 113-4, § 47, 127 Stat. 54 (2013).
99. Water Quality, THREE AFFILIATED TRIBES ENVTL. DIVISION, http://www.tatenviro.org/waterquality [https://perma.cc/9V5U-8WLT].